158 
THE CULTIVATOR. 
DICTIONARY OF TERMS 
Used in Agriculture and its Kindred Sciences. 
GUM. Mucilage anrl the gums differ little or none in 
their composition, and are generally the product of 
plants at their most vigorous period of vegetation ; in 
fact, gum is nothing more than the extravasated juices, 
hardened by exposure to the air. Gum is a constant 
product in the composition of trees and plants, and exists 
in a liquid form in their cells. According to Gay Lus- 
sac, Gum Arabic is composed of 
Carbon,. 42-23 
Oxygen,. 50-84 
Hydrogen,.-.. 6-93 
Gum in this country is most commonly found on the 
plum and the cherry, and appears to be intimately con¬ 
nected with many of the diseases to which these trees 
are subject. Some have supposed that the disease call¬ 
ed the black blight, which covers these trees with black 
unsightly protubeiances, and speedily destroys them, is 
nothing more than the juices imperfectly elaborated, 
and, therefore, poisonous io the tree, while others attri¬ 
bute them, (and we think correctly,} to insect perfora¬ 
tions and injury. It is certain, whatever may be the 
cause, that constant excision of these gummy spots or 
excrescences, as fast as they appear, is the only effectual 
cure of the disorder yet known. 
GYPSUM. This substance, called also Plaster of Pa¬ 
ris, or plaster, is one of the many sails of lime, and is 
composed when pure, of lime 33., sulphuric acid 44., 
and water 21., so that it is properly a sulphate of lime. 
Plaster may be considered as one of the most valuable 
of what are called the stimulating manures, and its use, 
already extensive, is annually rapidly increasing. For¬ 
tunately, the supply of this valuable substance is quite 
abundant in the United States, particularly in the cen¬ 
tral and western counties of New-York, where, in con¬ 
nexion with clover, it forms the great support of the 
staple crop, wheat, and gives an astonishing fertility to 
the soil. The modus operandi of plaster, or the manner 
in which it produces its effects, have been the subject of 
much speculation, and various theories have been pro¬ 
posed, most of which the advance of science has already 
shown to be untenable. Some have supposed that its 
action was to be attributed to the force with which it 
absorbed and retained water for the use of plants. 
Others have contended, that it acts by favoring the de¬ 
composition of animal and vegetable matters ; but Davy 
showed that the mixture of plaster with these sub¬ 
stances, does facilitate decomposition. Chaptal sup¬ 
poses that its value arises from its stimulating proper¬ 
ties, which are prevented from being destructive, like 
some of the other salts of lime, by the slowness with 
which it is dissolved in water. He says, “ The solu¬ 
bility of plaster in water, appears to be of precisely the 
degree most beneficial to plants. 300 parts of water 
will dissolve only 1 of plaster. Its action is, therefore, 
constant and uniform without being hurtful. The or¬ 
gans of plants are excited by it without being irritated 
or corroded, as they are by those salts which, being 
more soluble in water, are carried more abundantly in¬ 
to plants, producing upon them the most injurious ef¬ 
fects.” Another theory has been lately proposed by 
Prof. Liebig, which is certainly very ingenious, and ex¬ 
plains the action of plaster in connexion with the pre¬ 
sence of nitrogen in plants, more satisfactorily than any 
thing yet advanced. Prof. Liebig was the first to dis¬ 
cover that ammonia was a constant constituent of the 
atmosphere, and on this fact his theory is based. We 
quote from Sillimans’ Journal: “ This fertility arises 
exclusively from the fact, that the sulphate of lime fixes 
in the soil the ammonia dissolved in the atmosphere, 
which would otherwise be volatilized with the water as 
it evaporates. The carbonate of ammonia contained in 
rain water, is decomposed in gypsum, in precisely the 
same manner as in the manufacture of sal ammonia. 
Soluble sulphate of ammonia, and carbonate of lime are 
formed, and this salt of ammonia possessing no volati¬ 
lity, is consequently retained for the use of plants.” 
Gypsum is scattered by the hand at the rale of two 
or three bushels per acre, and its effects on the grasses 
are perceptible for three or four years. It is best strewn 
when the leaves are Avet Avith a slight rain or heavy 
deAv, and after the leaves of the plants begin to cover 
the ground. Some have objected to the use of plaster, 
that it produced greater crops at first, but that it speedi¬ 
ly exhausted the land, and impoverished it. Those 
Avho make this objection, probably, took every thing 
from the land, and returned nothing to it, relying avIioI- 
ly on the plaster to keep up the fertility, a course mani¬ 
festly erroneous. Clover should always accompany the 
use of plaster, and Avhen this crop is fed off on the land, 
and made part of the course of rotation, no deteriora¬ 
tion, but on the contrary, an increase of the grain crops 
has taken place. The plaster mills of NeAv-York, usu¬ 
ally reduce the material to powder after only drying it 
in the air, but kiln drying at a moderate heat drives off 
the water of crystalization, and renders it more valua¬ 
ble to the purchaser, as it takes in this case a greater 
quantity of the active materials, the sulphate and the 
lime, to make a ton. Considerable quantities of earthy 
materials are usually mixed Avith plaster, giving it a 
dark color, and on the proportion of these in the mass, 
much of the value is depending. Dried gypsum absorbs 
Avater rapidly, but it may be preserved many months 
without its properties being sensibly affected, if headed 
up in tight barrels. Chaptal affirms, from his own ex¬ 
perience, that though the baked plaster evidently pro¬ 
duced a better effect the first year, the next three years 
the difference was almost nothing. 
HAIR. The covering of animals generally is known 
by the name of hair, although in some of its modifica¬ 
tions it is called bristles, fur, wool, &c. while in all 
cases it is one of their most important appendages, con¬ 
tributing essentially to their safety, health, and beauty. 
Hair is elastic, and in masses almost impenetrable ; it 
is a bad conductor of heat, and is found the finest and 
closest on animals exposed to a low temperature ; it is 
a non-conductor of electricity, and materially aids in pro¬ 
tecting animals from the electrical changes of the atmo¬ 
sphere ; and the oil Avith which its surface abounds ren¬ 
ders it impenetrable to water ; thus hair serves to iso¬ 
late or protect animals from the three most poAverful 
external agents, heat, electricity, and moisture. Hair 
is subject to few diseases of its OAvn, but its appearance 
is one of the best indications of the health of the animal 
upon Avhich it is growing. Smooth and glossy, or 
coarse and staring, the hair exhibits almost unerringly, 
the treatment and condition of the animal. In some 
parts of Europe, and particularly in Poland, the human 
hair is subject to a complaint called the Plica polonica, 
in Avhich the hair becomes matted together, grows to 
an enormous length, is exceeding sensitive and painful, 
and bleeds if clipped or removed. Death is not unfre- 
quently the result from this disturbance of the system. 
Hair, in its properties, resembles horn, nails, feathers, 
&c. being soluble in Avater at a high temperature, and 
giving out, when burnt, ammonia, &c. Hair is a very 
active and excellent manure, and should never be wast¬ 
ed, as it too frequently is, by the farmer, but collected 
after butchering and applied to crops. Large quantities 
of avooI are annually Avasted about factories, clothing 
and carding machines, Avhich might be converted to the 
effective fertilization of the soil. 
HAM. This is one of the most valuable parts of the 
hog, and Avhich, if properly cured, may be preserved 
for almost any length of time, retaining its fine proper¬ 
ties. The hams most esteemed, are made from hogs 
fed on solid food, corn being the best, Avhich are allow- 
ed considerable exercise ; Avhich do not Aveigh more 
than 200 or 250 pounds, and Avhich have a large portion 
of muscular or lean flesh in their structure. When ta¬ 
ken from the hog, the edges should be rounded off, or 
trimmed, and the first step in the preparation is the 
pickling, or salting. To do this, almost every farmer or 
butcher has his OAvn Avay, some applying the salt dry to 
the ham, and repeating the operation of rubbing in un¬ 
til the requisite saltness is attained, Avhile others prefer 
making a brine, and salting the hams inthatway. The 
Westphalian hams are much esteemed, and the pickle 
in Avhich they are prepared is essentially as follows :— 
“ Boil together over a gentle fire six pounds of good 
common salt, tAVo pounds of powdered loaf sugar, three 
ounces of salt petre, and three gallons of spring water. 
Skim it Avliile boiling, and when quite cold, pour it over 
the hams, every part of which must be covered Avith 
the brine. Hams intended for smoking, will be suffi¬ 
ciently salted in this brine in two Aveeks ; though if very 
large, more time may be alloAved. This pickle may be 
used repeatedly, if boiled, and fresh ingredients added. 
Hams, before they are put in the pickle, should be soak¬ 
ed in water, all the blood pressed out, and wiped dry.” 
Much of the excellence of the ham is depending on the 
smoking. This should be done in such a manner that 
the ham shall be cool and perfectly dry throughout the 
Avhole operation. If too near the fire, they will be 
heated, and their flavor injured ; if the building be too 
close, the hams will be Avet, and taste as if dipped in 
pyroligneous acid. At Hamburg, where large quantities 
are prepared, the hams are smoked in the upper story 
of high buildings, Avhile the fires, Avhich are made of 
oak or maple chips, are made in the cellars. In pass¬ 
ing through such a length of pipe to the chambers, the 
smoke becomes cool and dry ; and the flavor of the 
hams is excellent. Hams intended for summer use, 
may be kept in any Avay Avhere they will be dry and 
cool, and secure from the fly or bug. Washing with 
lime, or putting in bags of coarse cloth, one ham in 
each, is practiced by many. Some keep their hams 
through the season in the smoke house, making a smoke 
under them once or twice a Aveek. 
HARROW. Next to the plow, the harroAV may be 
said to be the oldest agricultural implement. It is re¬ 
presented on the most ancient sculptures of Egypt, and 
is known in some form, Avherever the earth is cultivat¬ 
ed. Various forms are given to the harroAV, from that 
of the Avedge to the square, and the teeth are adapted 
to the Avork it is intended to perform. The great use 
of the harroAV is in pulverizing the earth, tearing out 
and freeing the soil from the roots of weeds and grasses, 
and covering seeds Avhen soAvn. For this purpose the 
harroAV is preferred to the ploAV, as the latter usually 
places the small seeds at too great a depth for certain 
germination. Many of our best farmers, hoAvever, pre¬ 
fer the ploAV to the harrow for covering Avheat, and as 
this grain, if soAvn in autumn, germinates better, and 
endures the winter better to have a greater depth of' 
earth than the harrow usually gives, they are prohably 
correct in their preference. A variety of figures of the 
harroAV may be found in the present volume of the Cul¬ 
tivator, and the previous ones ,* also in Low’s and Lou¬ 
don’s works on agriculture. 
HAY. In all countries Avhere the length and severity 
of the winters makes some provision for domestic ani¬ 
mals necessary, grass cut and cured in the form of hay 
has been always the cheapest and most valuable. To 
make hay, the artificial grasses, such as timothy, herds 
grass, clover, orchard grass, &c. which are sown for 
the purpose of meadoAV and pastures are preferred, be¬ 
ing more productive, and more nutritive than the grasses 
not so cultivated. Grass for hay should be cut at the 
time when the nutritive parts are most developed, and 
this is in most cases Avhen the plants are forming their 
seeds, but before they are ripened. In curing it, great 
care should be taken not to have it damaged by rain, nor 
should it be long exposed to the sun. In the first case 
the hay is Avashed and Avliitened, and in the last, the 
leaves crumble and fall off, thus materially lessening 
the quality of the article for fodder. Clover imikes a 
hay which all animals eat greedily , but it requires more 
strict precaution in curing, and will bear less handling 
without injury, than any other of the grasses. Clover 
should be cut before the heads are fully ripened, and 
while it contains the greatest amount of leaves. If cut* 
in the morning of a good day, spread out during the 
heat of the day, and before night put up in tall cocks 
but slender, that air may circulate through them, clover 
Avill cure with little difficulty and makes the best of 
fodder. For horses and sheep, clover is unequaled. 
The hay called rowen, or the second crop, is very fine, 
and good for lambs and young stock, but has not the 
nourishment which the more matured plant possesses. 
HEAT. Into the speculations existing in regard to 
the nature and cause of heat Ave shall not in this place 
enter ; its effect on all growth and vegetation is Avhat is 
of most consequence to the agriculturist. Although 
some plants can exist with a very small degree of heat, 
yet some of it seems essential to all fluidity and circu¬ 
lation, and consequently without it there can be no 
growth. The rapidity of all vegetation is in a great 
measure depending on the degree of heat combinedWith 
moisture to Avhich the plant is subjected, and there are 
many which cannot exist except in countries and places 
of high temperature. The effect of heat in forcing the 
growth of plants may be seen every season in our fields 
and gardens, and it has been ascertained by actual ex¬ 
periment, that a difference in temperature of 5° will 
advance or retard plants of the same kind and same ad¬ 
vantages, temperature excepted, from ten to fifteen 
days. Of all our important cultivated plants, corn is 
the one which requires the highest temperature, and 
Avill endure it the longest without injury. By a compa¬ 
rison of our best corn seasons with the registered tem¬ 
perature, we have found that unless the three summer 
months give an average of at least 75°, good crops of 
corn cannot be expected. A few of the earlier varieties, 
and in some of the most favored localities may succeed 
with a lower average, but the most productive sorts, 
and the crop in general Avill not in such seasons ripen. 
Melons require more heat than the climate of the north¬ 
ern States affords to arrive at perfection, and in England 
they cannot be grown at all Avithout the aid of artificial 
heat. Hot beds, by affording the means of an early 
vegetation, are useful in growing many plants Avhich, 
without them, could not be cultivated. 
HEDGE. One of the most beautiful and durable of 
fences, made of living plants, usually those of a thorny 
nature, and disposed to grow in a close and impervious 
manner. One of the most striking features of the Eng¬ 
lish landscape, is the hedges Avhich serve to divide the 
estates from each other, or the several farms into suita¬ 
ble fields for the purposes of agriculture. In the United 
States, numerous attempts at making hedges have been 
made, but owing to some unexplained cause, with but 
little success on the Avhole. The plants used here have 
generally been some variety of the foreign hedge thorn, 
but the deep green of the English hedge is not seen on 
the same plants here, and they are liable to the attacks 
of Avorms Avhich speedily destroy them. The osage 
orange, the honey locust, the crab apple, and the Avild 
mulberry, as natives of this country, have been tried 
with different degrees of success. Lately the buck¬ 
thorn has been introduced for this purpose into the 
vicinity of Boston and Salem, and there are noAv some 
beautiful specimens of hedges from this plant, which 
promise to be all the lovers of this kind of fence can de¬ 
sire. It is probable the differencein the temperature and 
moisture betAveen this country and Great Britain, is suf¬ 
ficient to account for the failure of the English thorn 
here, and render it expedient to rely on native plants of 
some kind, rather than imported ones. The best speci¬ 
mens of the hawthorn hedges we have seen, are in the 
vdcinity of Geneva, and of Sodus Bay, both in Western 
New-York. 
HEMP. The greatest hemp growing State in the 
Union is Kentucky, although some of the other West¬ 
ern States produce it to some extent; and there can be 
little doubt, that with proper protection and encourage¬ 
ment, and more attention to the several- processes of 
manufacture, an article equal to the best Russian may 
be furnished for our consumption, and thus a vast sav¬ 
ing to the nation be effected. Hemp requires a warm, 
rich, vegetable mold to produce it in perfection, and the 
best limestone lands of Kentucky, Tennessee, &c. are 
found to be admirably adapted to it. On any soil it 
must be considered an exhausting crop, but, perhaps, 
less so than tobacco, and a few others cultivated in the 
south of the Union. When hemp is fit to secure, it 
is either pulled or cut with a sythe, dnd dried in about 
the same manner as flax. The rotting process is one of 
the most important in making good hemp, and probably 
the one to which the general superiority of Russian 
hemp is owing. Ponds, or gently running soft water, 
are the places where hemp is best rotted, though dew 
rotting is much practiced. Hemp is dressed by hand or 
