THE CULTIVATOR 
91 
theory is a beautiful one, but does not appear to us per¬ 
fectly satisfactory, as not accounting for all the facts con¬ 
nected with its action. Were this absorption of ammo¬ 
nia the sole cause of the efficacy of plaster, it would be 
equally efficacious on all soils, and in all places, but 
farmers are well aware that such is not the fact. That 
this action on ammonia takes place, cannot be questioned ; 
that this is the only cause, of the efficacy of gypsum, is 
what is doubted. Dr. Dana’s account of the action of 
plaster, we shall here give in full, not only as showing his 
views of the matter, but also of the changes which a salt 
of lime can produce in soil: 
“ Suppose plaster or gypsum has been applied; the 
effects of a bushel of plaster per acre, or even the four- 
hundredth part of one per cent, produces effects on allu¬ 
vial land which shows its good results, as far as the eye 
can reach. It seems almost incredible that so minute a 
portion of a mineral can act at all, yet how beautifully 
is this result explained by the principle, that plants de¬ 
compose, first, this salt; the lime, for plaster is sulphate 
of lime, then acts on geine, which is thus rendered solu¬ 
ble; while the acid, the oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid, 
immediately acts on the silicates. If silicates of alkali 
exist in the soil, we have now changed sulphate of lime 
for an alkaline sulphate; and if silicate of lime is also 
present, the potash or alkali having been exhausted, 
plaster of Paris is formed anew. So long as there is in 
the soil organic matter, this action continues and will 
continue, till the plant has gradually withdrawn for its 
own use the acid of the salt which was introduced. Fer¬ 
tility depends wholly on salts and geine. Without the 
last, there is no fruit formed; without the salts, the geine 
is locked up or insoluble. The base of the salts acts al¬ 
ways in one uniform way; its action is wholly upon 
geine; the acid of the salts acts upon the silicates.” 
Dr. Dana goes on to show at length, and with much 
ability, the manner in which lime, ashes, &c. perform 
their part in the growth of plants, and we think that any 
one who will study this part of the volume, will agree 
with us, that one of the worst things a farmer can do, is 
to sell his ashes from the farm. To convince those who 
allow their leached ashes to be lost, of the waste of valu¬ 
able matter they sustain, we quote the following: 
“'A bushel of good ashes contains about 5^ lbs. of real 
potash. In leaching ashes, generally about one peck of 
lime is added to each bushel of ashes, and as it loses no 
bulk during the operation, a cord of leached ashes con¬ 
tains about the following proportions, allowing the usual 
proportion to be leached out, or 4| lbs. 
Phosphoric acid,. 117 lbs. 
Silex, . 146 “ 
Oxide of iron,. 17 “ 
“ of manganese,. 51 “ 
Magnesia,. 119 
Carb. of lime, including that added in leaching, • •• 3,072 “ 
Potash combined with silica,. 50 “ 
In chapter YI. Dr. Dana commences the discussion of 
the subject of manures properly so called, and very pro¬ 
perly says that the first requisite to successful farming is 
manure. Manures are composed of geine and salts; and 
by their elements are divided into three classes: “ 1st, 
those consisting chiefly of geine. 2d, those consisting 
chiefly of salts. 3d, mixed, or consisting of salts and 
geine. * * * By f ar the greater part of ma¬ 
nures belongs to the third class. Such are all composts, 
all stable manure, and all the usual products of the cow 
yard and hog pen. In discussing this subject, therefore, 
there ought to be some starting point, some standard 
common measure of value, to which can be referred all 
manures, and by which their worth can be determined.” 
For this standard of value, Dr. Dana selects “pure 
fresh fallen cow dung,” as one of the most common ma¬ 
nures, and of which the chemical constituents have been 
well ascertained. Dr. Dana’s analysis of this manure 
gives the following proportions of water, organic mat¬ 
ter, and salts, in 100 lbs. of cow dung: 
Water, • 
Organic 
matter. 
Salts. 
( Hay, . 
j Bile, and resinous and biliary matter,. 
( Albumen,. 
' Silica,. 
Sulphate of Potash, . 
Geate of Potash,.. • • 
• Muriate of Soda,. 
Phosphate of Lime, . 
I Sulphate of Lime,. . 
( Carbonate of Lime,. 
83-60 
14-60 
1-275 
•175 
• 14 
•05 
•07 
•08 
•23 
•12 
•12 
Loss, 
99-86 
•14 
This agrees very well with analyses made by European 
chemists, some giving more water and others less, while 
the other substances do not vary essentially, or more than 
was to be expected from the difference in food, &c. The 
composition of cow dung may be stated as follows: 
Geine,... 15-45 
Salts, . 95 
Water,. 83-60 
Or in 100 lbs. of cow dung, only one-sixth is of any 
value in agriculture. 100 lbs. of fresh cow dung affords 
five-eighths of a lb. of pure ammonia, or 2 lb. 2 oz. of 
carbonate of ammonia of the shops. A bushel of fresh 
cow dung weighs about 86 lbs. and this contains in round 
numbers 2^ lbs. of salts of ammonia, potash, soda, and 
lime. Dr- Dana found by actual experiment, that a sin¬ 
gle cow, an average producer of the article in question, 
her food and water being accurately weighed, consumed 
and produced in seven days as follows: 
■Water, •• 
Potatoes, 
Hay, •••■ 
612 lbs. 
87 “ 
167 “ 
Total of food and drink 866 lbs.; and voided, free from 
her liquid evacuations, 599 lbs. of dung. This cow pro¬ 
duced from 24 lbs. of hay and 12 lbs. of potatoes, daily, 
about one bushel or 85.57 lbs. of dung. One cow there¬ 
fore forms 
Daily, Or per year, 
12 lbs. geine, 4,400 lbs. of geine, 
3 oz. phosphate of lime, 71 “ bone dust, 
1J oz. plaster of Paris, 37 “ plaster, 
1* oz. of chalk, * 37 “ lime, marble or chalk, 
2-1 “ common salt, 
15 “ sulphate of potash. 
Estimating the nitrogen of dung as ammonia, a cow in 
a year produces 188 lbs. of pure ammonia, or 550 lbs. of 
carbonate of ammonia of the shops. The great value of 
dung for agriculture it is clear from this statement, de¬ 
pends on the ammonia and the geine; and from the state¬ 
ments of Dr. Dana, as well as those of Liebig, it is evi¬ 
dent that the salts of lime, which are the annual product 
of one cow, are sufficient to supply the grain and straw 
of a crop of wheat of 20 bushels per acre, on three acres. 
Dr. Dana’s inquiry into the use and origin of the nitro¬ 
gen of dung, “ that organic element to which must be 
attributed its chief enriching quality,” will well repay 
perusal. It was found by experiment, that the formation 
of nitrogen depended in a great degree on the kind of 
food given the animal, and that the dung of a cow fed on 
meal and water, gave of nitrogen 2^ per cent, or five 
times as much as common cow dung. This accounts sat¬ 
isfactorily for the fact of the dung of fattening animals 
being richer for agriculture than that of store animals. 
Having thus determined the agricultural value of cow 
dung as a standard, Dr. Dana proceeds to compare with 
with this the dung of some other animals. Of these, the 
first is the horse. As compared with cow dung, horse 
manure gives in 100 parts, 
Geine,. 27- 
Salts, •••••. 0-96 
Water,. 71-20 
The quantity of geine then in horse dung is nearly 
double that in cow dung; the salts, which are mostly 
phosphates of lime, magnesia, and soda, are about the 
same. As in the fermentation of manures, the heat is 
usually in the proportion to the formation of ammonia and 
nitrates, the greater product of these substances in horse 
dung, may in part account for its value as a heating ma¬ 
terial in hot-beds, &e. Horse dung contains in 100 parts, 
3.24 of carbonate of ammonia. 
Dr. Dana ranks in his analysis, hog manure and night 
soil together. He states the composition of the latter in 
its purest state as follows: 
Water,.75-3 
Geine,. 23-5 
Salts,. 1-2 
“ Night soil, including that of the hog, contains in 100 
parts, 
Geine,. 23- 
Salts,. 1-2 
Carbonate of Ammonia,. 16-32” 
Here we have the three most common substances used 
as manures; cow, horse and hog thing, including night 
soil, reduced to geine* salts, and ammonia, or its equiva¬ 
lent nitrogen; and we believe experience fully proves 
that their value is in direct proportion to their power of 
producing - ammonia. Experiments made by authority, 
in Prussia, proved that on soils which, manured with cow 
dung gave a product of seven for one sown, if manured 
with horse dung the yield was 10, and if with night soil, 
14, which is about the proportion the nitrogen in these 
manures bears to each other. We think therefore, that 
Dr. Dana is fully justified in saying “that the nitrogen 
present in a manure expresses its true value.” 
“ Among the mixed manures, poudrette and guano, 
rank next to night soil. Poudrette is night soil, partly 
dried in pans, and mixed up with variable quantities of 
ground peat and plaster. Its value will depend on the 
circumstance whether its ammonia is saved or lost in the 
manufacture. If sulphate or muriate of lime is added be¬ 
fore drying, then the volatile carbonate of ammonia, will 
be changed into sulphate of ammonia, and sal-ammoniac.” 
Besides.these soluble salts of ammonia, the peat retains 
a portion of the gaseous ammonia, and its geine is ren¬ 
dered more soluble. Plaster should always be mixed 
with night soils, to prevent the escape of ammonia. 
Guano, which is coming into use in England as a ma¬ 
nure, is the excrement of sea birds. It is found in vast 
beijs from 60 to 80 feet thick, on some islands in the 
South Pacific, near the coast of Peru. Of the various 
salts of ammonia it contains some 33 per cent; and of 
the phosphates about 15 per cent; and of soluble organic 
matter 12 per cent; facts which sufficiently indicate its 
origin and its richness. 
We have not room to follow Dr. Dana through his 
analysis of other animal matters used as manures, such as 
hair, horn, wool, &c. &c. but must not omit to state that 
the Dr. furnishes incidentally, a solution of a fact which 
has caused some bad blood, and some hard swearing, viz : 
the greater hardness of the beard when compared with 
other hail - , when he states that hair contains from one- 
half to two per cent of bone earth, the beard far exceed¬ 
ing in quantity any other variety. 
It will not do to pass over Dr. Dana's account of soot 
so easily, for this most valuable manure is entirely over¬ 
looked by the greater part of our farmers. There are 
few substances so rich in geine and salts as this, as the 
analysis of Dr. D. will show : 
Geine,. 30-70 
Nitrogen,... 20- 
Salts oflime, chalk, &c.. 25-31 
Bone dust, . 1-50 
Salts of potash, soda and ammonia,. 6-14 
Carbon,. 3-85 
Water, .. 12-50 
The salts contained m 100 lbs. of soot, are equal to 
those in one ton of cow dung; and its nitrogen in a simi¬ 
lar comparison, is as 40 to 1. “ Mixed with water in the 
proportion of six quarts of soot to a hogshead of water, 
it has been found a most efficacious liquid in the culture 
of green house plants,” and we can add ourtestimony to 
its value, when applied in proper quantities to any Ordi¬ 
nary crop. We have, however, known it used on tender 
garden plants to excess, destroying many of them. 
The sections devoted to bone dust, slaughter house of¬ 
fals, urine, spent ley, &c. will be read with advantage by 
every farmer; certainly all those who wish to have a 
reason for the action of such substances as promoters of 
vegetation. 
But to the practical farmer, one of the most interesting 
sections of the book, will be that in which it treats of ar¬ 
tificial manures. There is scarcely a farm in the coun¬ 
try in which there are not deposits of vegetable matter in 
the shape of peat, swamp muck, or pond mud. -Such 
substances are composed mostly of geine or humus, solu¬ 
ble and insoluble, and have been hitherto almost entirely 
neglected, when in fact they are the very elements of fer¬ 
tility. These deposits, dug out and thrown upon soil, 
produce little beneficial effect, unless subjected to previ¬ 
ous preparation; hence the little value placed upon them. 
Agricultural chemistry has led the way to their use, and 
now peat bogs, or swamp muck, is justly regarded as a 
source of wealth. An analysis by Dr. Dana, of 10 speci¬ 
mens of peat from different localities, shows the average 
composition of this substance. Soluble geine, 29.46; in¬ 
soluble geine, 55.03; total geine, 85.39; salts and sili¬ 
cates, 15.59. Pond mud is less rich in geine, containing 
more salts and silicates; but still when prepared is an ex¬ 
cellent manure. 
It is a singular fact that fresh dug peat of average quali¬ 
ty, scarcely differs in its elements from cow dung-, 100 
parts containing, 
Water, . 85- 
Salts of lime,. 0-50 
Silicates,. 0-50 
Geine, . 14- 
A cord of 103 bushels of cow dung and of peat, will 
compare in composition as follows: 
Weight Soluble Insoluble Total Salts of 
per cord, geine. geine. geine. lime 
Duns,. 9,289 lbs. 128 1,28S 4,416 92 
Deaf, .9,216 “ 376 673 1,049 91 
“ The salts and geine of a cord of peat, are equal to the 
manure of one cow for three months. * * And 
the power of producing alkaline action on the insoluble 
geine of peat, is alone wanted to make it good cow dung.” 
The great point in rendering peat useful to the agricul¬ 
turist, is to supply that lacking element, ammonia; since 
without this, cow dung would not be as valuable as peat 
in its natural condition. Abundant experiments prove 
that the addition of an alkali to peat, is all that is required 
to effect this change; and the calculations into which Dr. 
D. enters to ascertain the quantity of alkali necessary, are 
extensive and minute. Fortunately the question is only 
one of economy in the use of alkali; as a larger quantity 
than is demanded to render the giene soluble is no injury 
to the land. Dr. Dana states, that 
69 parts of ammonia, are equal to 
58 “ soda or white ash, or to 
72 “ 1st quality pot. or pearlash, or 
S6 “ 2d “ pot or pearlash. 
100 lbs. of fresh peat require 2 lbs. of soda ash, or 3 
lbs. of pot or pearl ashes, to render it equal to cow dung. 
Peat in drying, loses three-fourths of its weight; hence 
the quantity or per cent of alkali for dried peat must be 
proportionably increased. Every cord of fresh dug peat 
requires 92 lbs. of pot ash, or 61 lbs. of soda, or 16 to 20 
bushels of common house ashes will effect the change 
which the peat demands. Mr. Phinney of Lexington, a 
high authority in agricultural matters, has found by ex¬ 
perience, “that a cord of green dung converts twice its 
bulk of peat into a manure equal in value to itself; that 
is, a cord of clear stable dung, composted with two of 
peat, forms a manure of equal value to three cords of 
green dung.” The dung furnishes the requisite alkali, 
and ammonia in increased quantities is the result. 
The value of peat when combined with ashes, either 
new or spent, does not however depend on theoretical 
speculation alone; and it is in combination with ashes 
that this substance quickly proves its importance as a fer¬ 
tilizer. Mi. G. Bobbins of Watertown, Mass., an exten¬ 
sive manufacturer of soap, has one of the finest and most 
productive farms in that vicinity; and although he keeps 
eleven horses, four cows, and one hundred hogs, he has 
not for four years used a shovel full of their manure, or 
that made by any animal, upon his farm. His animal 
manure is carefully saved and sold, while his spent ba¬ 
rilla ashes, mixed in the proportion of one part of ashes 
to three of peat dug up in the fall, and mixed in the 
spring, forms a manure that keeps his land in the best 
possible condition. The following extract will show how 
easily this manure may be prepared: 
“ The best plan for preparing the artificial manure 
would be to dig the peat or swamp muck in the fall; in 
the spring of the year let this be mixed in the proportion 
of 30 lbs. of potash, 20 lbs. of soda ash, or 8 bushels of 
common house ashes, to every cord of fresh dug peat, es¬ 
timating this by the pit dug out, and allowing nothing for 
shrinking. If ashes are used, they may he mixed in a* 
once with the muck, but. if potash or soda is used, they 
must be dissolved in water, and the pile evenly wet with 
the solution. The pile is then to he well shoveled over, 
and used as other manure. But it has been found by ex¬ 
perience that the peat may be dug in the spring, imme¬ 
diately mixed with the alkali and used forthwith. If 
spent ashes are used to prepare this muck, add one cord 
of spent ashes to three cords of peat or swamp muck.” 
