RELATED FORMS OF CONIFERS 
345 
in the western part of North America, on the slopes facing 
the Pacific Ocean. 
293. Related Forms of Conifers. — Hemlocks, spruces, 
firs, and balsams have smaller, flatter needles than the 
a, arbor vitae ; b, hemlock. 
pines and they are not arranged in bundles. Cedars have 
scale-like leaves. Larch and cypress trees shed their leaves 
in the fall, but in other respects are much like the pines. 
FIELD STUDY OF GYMNOSPERMS 
Most of the work in connection with gymnosperms should be done 
out of doors. The student should learn to know by sight all the local 
native evergreens and those commonly planted for ornament. He 
should note the method of branching and the character of the trunk 
compared with other trees. He should observe the position of the cones 
on the branches and be able to give the reasons therefor. In the spring 
he should look for the male and female strobili, and for leaf buds in 
the winter. He should examine the leaf scars and the external rings 
which mark a year’s growth, and decide how many years each tree keeps 
its leaves. He should note the arrangement of the leaves on the 
branches, the annual rings in the wood and their relation to the grain 
of the wood, the resin on wounds, the curvature of the branches, and 
other features readily observed. 
