Keable & Ahyong: Upside-down jellyfish in NSW 
29 
capabilities (Holland etal, 2004) so it is highly plausible that 
anthropogenic influences are involved. Given the isolated 
and significantly disjunct occurrences of the two forms 
recorded here, that at least one of the present forms does not 
appear referable to known Australian species, and the genus 
is conspicuous where it occurs, the new records from New 
South Wales do appear to represent new introductions. Even 
if the Wallis Lake form is referable to true C. maremetens, 
the absence of records from intermediate localities in 
New South Wales is consistent with human mediated 
translocation. Different factors may also be implicated in 
the different situations of Wallis Lake compared to Lake 
Illawarra. Vectors suggested for anthropogenic transport of 
Cassiopea include shipping (through biofouling or ballast 
water release), intentional or unintentional direct release and 
via “live rock” from aquaria (Holland et al ., 2004; Graham 
& Bayha, 2007; Schembri et al ., 2009). Both lakes have 
considerable recreational and other domestic vessel traffic, 
and Lake Illawarra is close to a major population centre, 
Wollongong and commercial port, Port Kembla. Increased 
water temperatures associated with global warming or a 
perturbation of the East Australian Current could also be 
involved, although one would predict the occurrence of 
Cassiopea from intermediate localities between southern 
Queensland and Wallis Lake-Lake Illawarra. 
The presence of Cassiopea medusae in Lake Illawarra 
currently appears to be ephemeral, but the dormant 
reproductive potential of the polyp stage of jellyfish 
(Gershwin, 2013) means another outbreak could occur 
again in the future. Conversely, Cassiopea appears to be 
established in Wallis Lake where it is continuously present 
over consecutive seasons. Given the amenity, economic 
asset and ecological benefits these waterways provide and 
the possible negative impacts invasive jellyfish are known to 
have, it is imperative that these outbreaks are studied further, 
and the vectors for translocation identified. Moreover, 
taxonomic revision of the genus is urgently required in order 
that incursions can be accurately recognized and tracked. 
We hope publication of these initial records will stimulate 
further investigations. 
Acknowledgments. Mr M. Cameron and Ms R. Pearce 
are thanked for their concern in reporting these records and 
obtaining specimens for us. We also appreciate our colleagues 
Julian Pepperell (Pepperell Research & Consulting Pty Ltd), 
Mark McGrouther (Australian Museum) and Kirk Dahle (NSW 
Department of Primary Industries) for bringing the initial reports 
to our attention. Alexandra Hegedus provided technical support in 
obtaining and curating the specimens documented, Anna Murray 
assisted in the field and Michael Elliott constructed the maps used 
in Fig. 1. Merrick Eckins, Queensland Museum, kindly arranged the 
loan of specimens of C. maremetens. Thanks go to Bella Galil and 
Pat Hutchings for constructive comments on the manuscript. This 
is a contribution from the Australian Museum Research Institute. 
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