150 
MAGAZINE OF SCIENCE AND ART. 
a proper seed-sowing machine, that would plant the 
seed three inches deep in the fresh soil — these pro¬ 
tected from the sun’s heat/ and where it must in¬ 
stantly absorb moisture from the fresh soil—such 
plants, when assisted by manure, would he healthy, 
and able to contend against the severity of a season 
which would certainly destroy all those produced 
under the present system of harrowing-in. 
Practical experience has proved that deep-sown 
wheat throws up but few stalks, while self-sown 
wheat throws up numbers, but still more dependent 
on the seasons; for the former derives some nour¬ 
ishment from its depth, while the latter droops for 
lack of moisture. From this it is natural to con¬ 
clude that a medium is required, and neglect of this 
one material point is often the origin of indifferent 
crops, for as we sow so shall we reap. 
Smut in Wheat. — By a close observation of 
nature, we will find a great similarity in animal 
and vegetable life, and in some eases they are 
governed by similar laws; for instance, the sensi¬ 
tive plant, the male and female hop, the inoculation 
of pumpkins, the barrenness of fruits, vegetables, 
and flowers. Smut is barren wheat, and is not to 
he detected by the best judges until the plant ar¬ 
rives at nearly its. full growth, and that peculiar 
stage, when the milk ought to form in the husk, 
which is the first formation of the seed ; hut at this 
stage nature is evidently exhausted, and lienee the 
result — barren or smutty wheat. 
All vegetable seeds have two distinct duties to 
perform, and plants, like animals, can he perfect in 
appearance, deficient only in productiveness. Of 
this I have had positive proof, as regards potatoes 
and wheat, and from which I conclude that all 
other vegetable seeds are governed by the same law, 
and differ little, if any, in this case from the ani¬ 
mal creation. 
During the potatoe failure in forty-one in Ire¬ 
land, I was a considerable sufferer. On examining 
the sets, I found, in all cases, that rot originated in 
the centre of the set, and when vegetation did take 
place, it was supported only by the outer coat or 
margin, and all such plants, at first, were crumpled 
and unhealthy; in time they derived nourishment 
from the soil, and grew most luxuriantly; hut, alas! 
to the horror of a starving population, they yielded 
neither fruit or flowers; thus the set performed 
only half its duty, rot deprived it of the other por¬ 
tion — productiveness . 
Smut is scarcely known in the south of Ireland, 
though I have seen solitary instances, still one ear 
is sufficient to prove that it did exist, and would 
probably flourish to the same extent as in this 
Colony, if proper preventatives were not adopted. 
There it is the custom to steep all seed-wheat in 
pickle, for four hours, on the night previous to the 
day of sowing; during this process, the wheat is 
occasionally stirred, till all light and barren wheat 
is brought to the surface and taken off j the pickle 
is then drawn off, and the saturated wheat is spread 
out on a floor, and dried with quick-lime; by this 
process, sound wheat only is committed to the soil, 
and where I have seen a similar process adopted in 
this Colony, I never knew air instance of smut. 
Smut is barren wheat, and barrenness is caused 
by a small insect, which destroys the flower or pro¬ 
ductiveness of the seed, leaving it light and almost 
perfectly hollow; this occurs both in the ground 
and out of it, but the process prescribed is a cer¬ 
tain remedy. 
I now beg to state, that my remarks on agricul¬ 
ture allude merely to this portion of the interior, 
and not to the Colony generally. Being conscious 
of my inability to do justice to such an important 
subject, I have confined myself to observations, 
the result of practical experience. Trusting to 
your indulgence for all imperfections, 
I have the honor to he, 
Sir, 
Your most obedient servant, 
Armidale, LEWIS MARKHAM- 
Sept. 12, 1857. 
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS OF NEW 
SOUTH WALES. 
Hep or t to the Honorable, the Secretary for Lands and 
rublit Works, by Captain MartinaaLe y R.E , Chief 
Commissioner for Railways. 
On assuming the direction of the Railway Department 
I have thought it my duty to submit, as early as 
possible, a brief general Report on the Internal Com¬ 
munications of this Country. 
I propo.se to consider :— 
1st. The condition of the existing Railways. 
2nd. The extensions ordered or proposed. 
3rd. The condition of the existing Roads. 
4th. The system to be adopted for their improvement. 
It is difficult to over-rate the importance of these 
subjects. 
1. THE CONDITION OF TIIE EXISTING RAILWAYS. 
The length of the line from Sydney to Parramatta 
is 13^ miles, and 1 am informed it was constructed 
at a cost of £566,710 8s. 8d. 
It is a double line throughout, laid with Barlow’s 
saddle-back rails, 75 lbs. to the yard. These have 
proved too weak for the heavy engines run upon them, 
and the means taken to increase their strength by the 
addition of cross sleepers placed underneath, have not 
fully answered : the joints have become bad, and the 
rails bent and twisted. The ballast composed of sand, 
in itself an objectionable material, is constantly 
washed away by the heavy rains, and this has made 
the cost of the maintenance of the permanent way very 
considerable; and, though great efforts have been made 
under the superintendence of the Engineer-in-Chief to 
keep the line in good order, the expense is so heavy 
that I am of opinion the rails should be gradually 
taken up and used in sidings, as required, and the way 
re-laid with fresh ballast, and with the double-headed 
rail, not less than 75 lbs. to the yard, or with the 
present rails straightened and strengthened by the 
introduction of additional sleepers beneath them. 
Distance signals are wanting on the line, and should 
be introduced”. These, with the use of the Electric. 
Telegraph now in progress, will materially increase 
the security of travelling. 
From Parramatta to Liverpool, a distance of 8£ 
miles, the line is single, with double-way works, and 
its construction is stated to have cost £120,040 Is.^lld. 
The permanent way. (laid with the H. rail, 75 lbs. 
to the yard and fish-jointed), is maintained by the con¬ 
tractor under his contract for making the line, and is 
in good order, but this arrangement will expire on the 
31st instant, and the expense must afterwards be de- 
fraved from the Revenue. 
The rolling stock is, on the whole, in good condition, 
and the adoption in fiiture of composite.carriages, in 
place of first and second class carriages, wilt be an im¬ 
provement ; and with the additions authorised bv the 
Votes of this year, the present stock will be sufficient 
to work the line to Campbelltown, when it is opened. 
From this favourable report I must, however except 
the engines, which are too large aud heavy for the 
traffic,~and in indifferent older; and of two engines 
received from England in March last, the construction 
