Convention—Agriculture in middle ages. 213 
that is from four to sixteen bushels of wheat; the other crops at 
about the same proportion. 
I have spoken chiefly of agriculture in England, that being the 
country in regard to which we have the best information. It would 
appear that in France and Germany agricultural science was some- 
what less advanced; in the south of Europe it was in a much higher 
condition, as might be expected from the greater advancement of 
these nations in the other departments of civilization. We find in 
Italy during the Middle Ages agricultural improvements which in 
the more northern countries belong only to modern times. 
The great obstacles to agricultural progress were two: The sim¬ 
plicity of medieval life, which was satisfied with a few gross pro¬ 
ducts, and the artificial restrictions of society which hampered all 
individuality and enterprise. 
The first of these obstacles was removed by the rapid growth of 
the cities in population, wealth and power, a growth which belongs 
mainly to the fourteenth century. The rich burghers — plebeians 
as they were —'Were not satisfied with the coarse, unvaried fare of 
a baron’s table, nor with the homespun garments of wool and hemp. 
Commerce began to supply them abundantly with the wines, silks 
and spices of the South and East, and home productions must like¬ 
wise be more delicate and varied. The extravagance and luxury 
which characterized the closing years of the Middle Ages, had at 
least this good result, that they gave a powerful stimulus to every 
branch of production. From this new city life begins the first de¬ 
cisive progress in agriculture. 
The second obstacle was also removed, but more slowly. With 
the breaking up of feudalism, serfdom — its natural companion—■ 
must perish too; but the process was a slow one, and in many parts 
of Europe serfdom, instead of being mitigated with the new life 
of modern times, was .made more harsh and burdensome. Still 
slower to disappear was the control over modes of cultivation exer¬ 
cised by the communities, with their constrained cultivation in 
common. In some parts of western Europe these usages have not 
even yet disappeared; in eastern Europe they are in full operation 
to this day. 
I have shown, I think, that, with all its short-comings, medieval 
agriculture was not at so very low a stage. Unscientific as it was, 
it was nevertheless careful and faithful; no one can look over the 
