SISTAN. 277 
as consisting of flat plains of fine allnvinni and dark gravel over which the fierce 
north winds drive fields of sand-dunes. On the southern edges of the desert the 
dunes often attain a height of 200 feet, and enormous drifts of sand bury- the volcanic 
mountains of northern Baluchistan to depths of one or two thousand feet, or even 
more (McMahon, b^ p. 290). North of the Helmund River the Dasht-i-Margo, or 
Desert of Margo, which was crossed b}- Ferrier (rt, p. 400), appears to be of much 
the same character, although the sand-hills are not so high apparently, and the area 
of fine silt exceeds that of gravel. 
The river itself flows in a distinct valley of erosion, which Colonel McIMahon 
(described to me as being broadly open, with three or four persistent terraces of gravel, 
like those which will be described later as occurring along other streams nearer to 
the Hamun-i-Sistan. Between these receding terraces lies whatHoldich («, p. 106) 
calls " the curious green ribbon of Helnumd cultivation which divides the great 
untraversed wastes of the Dasht-i-Margo from the somewhat less formidable sand 
deserts to the south." " Here in a narrow little space of a mile or so in width we 
found the great river shut in with a green abundance, infinitely refreshing and 
delightful." Jungles of tamarisks border the river, and here and there nomad 
Baluchis feed their flocks, or even cultivate fields of grain. Far more impressive 
than the modern villages, however, are the innumerable evidences of a far greater 
population which finally disappeared not many hundred years ago. Everj' writer on 
the region dwells on the " cities of the dead, spreading out like gigantic cemeteries 
for miles on either side of the river, gaunt relics of palaces and mosques and houses, 
upright and bleached, scattered over acres of debris, masses of broken potter}-, mounds 
of ancient mud ruins. . . . The extent of these Kaiani ruins (dating their final 
destruction from a centur}^ and a half ago) would be incomprehensible were it not 
for the extent of the indications of that canal system which was developed from the 
Helmund to assist in supporting the crowd of humanity which must have dwelt in 
the Hehnund Valley " (Holdich, «, p. 107). 
The other main afiluents of the Haniun-i-Sistan repeat the features of the 
Helmund on a smaller scale. Rising in the mountains south of the Heri Rud, they 
run southwestward to the desert. Through this they flow in intrenched valleys 
which are probably like that of the Helmund. Along their courses through the 
plains, ruins replace the settled villages of the upper valleys, while at the heads of 
the deltas not far from the lake of Sistan the remains of ancient cities, such as 
Peshawaran, cover the plain for miles. Except for the distributaries which travcr.se 
the western half of the delta of the Helmund, all the important streams of the 
Sistan basin are located in Afghan territory-, where exploration has always been 
exceedingly difficidt. To-day it is practically impossible for a European to enter 
the country-, and we must perforce rest content with the scanty accounts contained 
in the works of a handful of adventurous explorers half a centun,- ago. 
DESCRIPTION OF SIST.\N. 
The district of Sistan occupies a shallow depression on the southwestern edge 
of the Sistan basin. It comprises the lake, the swampy belt of reeds, and the low 
arable plain. Along the western border for a distance of 50 miles or more the 
