NONCONSUMPTIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION: 
AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE INTERACT IONS* 
by 
Stephen A. Boyle and Fred B. Samson 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
Colorado Cooperative Wildlife Research Untt 
Colorado State Untverstity 
Fort Collins, Colorado 806526 
ABSTRACT 
Nonconsumptive outdoor recreation has increased greatly in recent years, 
and there is growing concern about the effects of such activities on wildlife 
and wildlife habitats. Unfortunately, information concerning these effects is 
scarce and widely scattered. To stimulate research and assist resource plan- 
hers and managers in utilizing available information, an annotated bibli- 
ography of human-wildlife interactions is provided. The report reviews inter- 
actions between wildlife and humans participating in nonconsumptive outdoor 
recreation activities. The 536 citations consist of books, articles, govern- 
ment publications, organization reports, theses and dissertations, and select- 
ed Federal Aid Reports written since 1950, which primarily concern terrestrial 
vertebrates of North America. Included with each citation are an annotation 
summarizing relevant information and descriptors consisting of species names 
and subject keywords. Also provided are indexes to authors, species, key- 
words, and geographic regions; an annotated list of keywords; and a list of 
bibliographies on related topics. 
The 1980 National Survey of Fishing, Hunt= 
ing, and Wildlife-Associated Recreation (Lyons 
1982) revealed that one of every two adult 
Americans participated in some form of wild- 
life- or fish-related outdoor activity during 
1980. Nearly 83 million citizens either ob- 
served or photographed wildlife, or pursued 
other forms of "nonconsumptive" wildlife 
recreation. The effect of man's activities on 
wildlife and wildlife habitat is of concern to 
refuge managers, ecological service personnel, 
interpretive planners, and other Federal, 
State, and private resource managers. Trail- 
walking, picnicking, wildlife observing and 
photography, and horse-riding are among activ- 
ities that affect wildlife. In fact, some 
authors have questioned the use of the term 
"nonconsumptive"’ to describe activities such 
seontribution of Colorado Cooperative Wildlife 
Research Unit; Colorado State University, 
Colorado Division of Wildlife, U.S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, and the Wildlife Management 
Institute, cooperating. This work was funded 
by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service under 
Unit Cooperative Agreement No. 14-16-009-1506. 
as hiking and camping (Weeden 1976; Wilkes 
1977). Recognizable effects of such activi- 
ties on wildlife include changes in wildlife 
diversity or abundance, and altered habitat 
structure and utilization. Another concern is 
the ability of wildlife and habitat to recover 
from disturbance. Direct and indirect effects 
of man's activities on wildlife and wildlife 
habitat will no doubt increase in the future. 
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has a 
basic responsibility to perpetuate wildlife 
for the enjoyment of citizens of the United 
States. Simultaneous enjoyment and perpetua- 
tion of wildlife requires skillful management 
based on knowledge and experience. The pur- 
pose of this bibliography is to review and 
synthesize information on human-wildlife in- 
teractions into a format useful to resource 
managers. 
Citations consist of material written 
since 1950 and primarily concern terrestrial 
vertebrates of North America; some reports of 
worldwide significance or about species of 
other continents but relevant to North Ameri- 
can problems are also listed. Types of liter- 
ature included are published books, technical 
and semitechnical articles, government agency 
