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Aasheim, R. 1980. Snowmobile impacts 
on the natural environment. Pages 
191-200 in R. N. L. Andrews and P. F. 
Nowak, eds. Off-road vehicle use: A 
management challenge. Conference pro- 
ceedings, 16-18 March 1980, Ann Arbor, 
Mich. 
Snowmobiling and its impacts on natu- 
ral environments in Montana are de- 
scribed. Studies of impacts on deer 
and elk have produced conflicting re- 
sults, but there is little doubt that 
additional stress on _ poor-condition 
animals in winter is undesirable. An- 
imals accustomed to humans are less 
affected by snowmobiles than animals 
in more remote areas. Effects on 
small mammals and possible effects of 
packed snowmobile trails are dis- 
cussed. 
OFF-ROAD VEHICLES, HARASSMENT, FORESTS, 
RECREATION MANAGEMENT, U.S. STATE PARKS 
AND LANDS, MAMMALS, MULE DEER, ELK 
Aitchison, S. W. 1976. Human impact on 
the Grand Canyon. Down River 3(4):18- 
19. 
Impacts of boating in the Grand Canyon 
are discussed in relation to estab- 
lishment of a carrying capacity for 
boating on the Colorado River. Fire, 
litter, trampling, toilet dumping, 
noise, movement of natural objects, 
and people presence are listed as 
sources of disturbance. Impacts on 
wildlife are considered. 
BOATING, CAMPING, RIVERS, RECREATION 
MANAGEMENT, U.S. NATIONAL PARKS, MAM- 
MALS, BIRDS, REPTILES 
Aitchison, S. W. 1977. Some effects of 
a campground on breeding birds in Ari- 
zona. Pages 175-182 in Importance, 
preservation, and management of ripar- 
jan habitat: A symposium, 9 July 
1977, Tucson, Ariz. U.S. For. Serv. 
Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-43. 
In a 3-year study in Oak Creek Canyon, 
Arizona, bird populations were com- 
pared between a constructed campground 
and a more natural control area. When 
the campground was closed to campers, 
bird densities were similar but spe- 
cies composition was different. When 
the campground was opened for human 
use, the breeding bird population de- 
creased in density and diversity. 
CAMPING, FORESTS, RECREATION MANAGEMENT , 
U.S, NATIONAL FORESTS, BIRDS 
Aitchison, S. W., S. W. Carothers, and 
R. R. Johnson. 1977. Some ecologi- 
cal considerations associated with 
river recreation management. Pages 
222-225 in Proceedings: River Recrea- 
tion Management and Research Symposi- 
um, 24-27 January 1977, Minneapolis, 
Minn. U.S. For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. 
NC-28. 
Human-wildlife relationships are among 
topics discussed in relation to an 
ecological study of the Colorado River 
in Arizona. Litter and organic wastes 
at campsites along the river may in- 
crease populations of noxious insects 
and vertebrates. 
BOATING, CAMPING, RIVERS, HUMAN HEALTH 
AND SAFETY, RECREATION MANAGEMENT, U.5. 
NATIONAL PARKS, MAMMALS, BIRDS, REPTILES 
Altmann, M. 1958. The flight distance 
in free-ranging big game. J. Wildl. 
Manage. 22:207-209. 
Flight distance (the minimum distance 
a wild animal will tolerate approach 
before fleeing) is discussed as a 
quantitative measure of reactivity of 
game animals to intruding persons. In 
studies of moose and elk in Wyoming, 
flight distances varied by habitat 
type, social grouping, and reproduc- 
tive and nutritional states. 
DISTURBANCE (GENERAL), TOURISM, FORESTS, 
FLIGHT DISTANCE, U.S. NATIONAL PARKS, 
ELK, MOOSE 
American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, Committee on Arid Lands. 
1974. Off-road vehicle use. Science 
184: 500-501. 
Impacts of off-road vehicle’ use 
including destruction of flora and 
fauna on arid lands in the United 
States are briefly reviewed. Problems 
