45%, respectively, as compared with 1977 and the 10- 
year average; notable increases were observed in mallards 
(+38 and +30%), pintails (+34 and + 14%), wigeon 
(+47 and +15%), and green-winged teal (+103 and 
+ 198%). Divers, on the other hand, were up 11% from 
1977 but down 3% from the average. Redheads were 
down (-36 and -45%), as well as canvasbacks (-27 and 
-33%) and goldeneyes (-37 and -17%). Other species 
had rather dramatic increases such as ring-necked ducks, 
which were up 43% from 1977 but were still down 1% 
from the average. In the miscellaneous category, ruddy 
ducks increased 62% over 1977 but were still 38 % below 
average. Mergansers (Mergus spp.) were up 67% and 
101%, respectively. Coots were down 77% from 1977 
and 44% from the average. No broods of any species were 
observed before the conclusion of the survey, further sub- 
stantiating the late spring in the North. 
Summer Weather and Habitat Conditions 
Summer weather was poor to marginal during the nest- 
ing period; temperatures ranged from cool to cold. Low 
temperatures persisted throughout July with record lows 
of 2°C in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, and 4°C in 
Thompson, Manitoba, on 21 July 1978. Habitat condi- 
tions in northwestern Saskatchewan and the Big Riv- 
er-Meadow Lake region were poor, reflective of the lack 
of adequate winter snowfall. Fair to good habitat condi- 
tions were observed in the remaining regions, especially 
the Pucatawagan, Thompson, and Gilliam areas. Precipi- 
tation levels recorded during 1 May-20 July 1978 re- 
vealed increases from the norm for the Thompson and 
Gilliam areas in Manitoba and the Nippowin, La Ronge, 
and Prince Albert areas in Saskatchewan. All other re- 
porting stations in the survey area had less than average 
rainfall during the period. 
Production (Table B-3) 
In the five northern strata (21-25), the duck brood 
index was 24% below that of 1977 and 32% less than the 
average. The late spring had an obvious effect on the 
chronology of the nesting season. During the 1977 survey, 
28% of the identifiable broods were class I, whereas 
during 1978 that same class was representative of 47% of 
the 172 broods counted. By the time the surveys were 
completed, a good number of diver broods were just 
beginning to emerge, further attesting to the adverse 
weather conditions during May and July of 1978. 
The class II and III average brood size was 5.3, a de- 
crease of 3% from 1977 and 5% from average. In two 
strata the average brood size dropped below 5.0 ducklings 
(stratum 23, 4.3; and stratum 25, 4.8). The mallard late- 
nesting index was 6% above 1977 and 29% above 
average; that of the green-winged teal was up 174 % from 
1977 and 391% from average. The late-nesting index for 
all species of diving ducks was 45% less than that re- 
ported in 1977 and 42% below the 10-year average. 
Southern Alberta 
Data supplied by K. Duane Norman and Larry E. Mallard 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
Spring Weather and Habitat Conditions 
In southern Alberta, March was milder and drier than 
normal and temperatures ranged up to 4°C above the 
seasonal average and precipitation ranged from 8 to 
24 mm. Above normal temperature (with no extreme de- 
parture from normal) continued into April. Southern Al- 
berta had between 62 and 108 mm of precipitation. With 
the exception of the Lethbridge and mountain foothill 
areas, the seasonal snowfall since September was consid- 
erably below normal. Snowmelt was complete in the 
Province by the end of April. May was normal in both 
temperature and precipitation even though snow fell 
during the first part of the month. Up to 30 mm of snow 
fell north of High Level on 22 and 23 May 1978. 
Habitat conditions were near normal when we arrived 
in Calgary on 3 May. None of the large water bodies con- 
tained ice, although some ice remained along the banks of 
the larger rivers and streams and a light snow cover re- 
mained in the southwestern foothills at the beginning of 
the survey. By the time the survey crew had reached Red 
Deer, the aspen were fully leafed. 
The overall May pond index was 18% above 1977 
levels, due primarily to huge increases in stratum 29. 
Quantitatively, the habitat was 32% below the long-term 
average. 
Breeding Populations (Table B-4) 
The total duck breeding population index was up 11% 
from 1977 but down 23% from the average. Puddle duck 
populations were up 14% from 1977 but were still down 
(~29%) from the average. Divers decreased 1% from 
1977 but remained 14% above average. 
Of the puddle ducks, the pintail showed the greatest 
response (+ 215%) to improved habitat. Shovelers and 
wigeon increased 84 and 56%, respectively, compared 
with 1977, whereas blue-winged teal (-48%), green- 
winged teal (-32%) and gadwall (-29%) decreased. Mal- 
lards decreased 3% from last year and were 42% below 
average. Compared with the 10-year average, all puddle 
duck indices decreased. 
Of the diving ducks, redheads, canvasbacks, and scaup 
(the most numerous divers in the survey area) all de- 
creased in numbers from 1977; however, compared with 
the 10-year average, all divers increased (+14% to 
+ 181%) with the exception of the redhead (-10%). 
The lone drake index was slightly above the 10-year 
average. 
Summer Weather and Habitat Conditions 
During May and June rain fell with varying degrees of 
intensity within the Province. The southern grasslands re- 

ceived enough rain to maintain May habitat well into 
July, but most areas north of Medicine Hat received far 
too little moisture to maintain much more than green 
grass. Many wetlands were dry for the first time in 
10 years; July pond indices were up 5% from 1977 but 
still 24% below average. Changes from the normal in 
permanent water were evident as one progressed north- 
ward in the region. Temperatures during May, for most 
locations, were near normal. Above normal temperatures 
prevailed during June but a return to near normal was ex- 
perienced during July. 
Production (Table B-4) 
The duck brood indexes clearly pointed to drying hab- 
itat as one progressed northward from the southern grass- 
lands. Increases in the brood index from 1977 were 
+ 483% in stratum 29, + 157% in stratum 28, +69% in 
stratum 27, and + 28% in stratum 26. The brood index 
for the entire survey unit was up 69% from 1977 and 
22% from the 10-year average. The average brood size 
was up 15% from 1977 and 2% from average. Coot 
production increased substantially from 1977, a year in 
which there was no production at all in strata 27, 28, and 
29. 
Examination of brood classification indicated that 
36 % of the broods were class II, 32% were class III, 20% 
were class 1, and 12% were unclassified. As compared 
with 1977, the number of broods per square kilometer in- 
creased during 1978. 
During the 1978 survey there was an increased late- 
nesting index (+73% from 1977 and +17% from 
average) but a decrease in available habitat; therefore, 
the late nesting likely produced only a fraction of the 
potential indicated. 
Southern Saskatchewan 
Data supplied by Rassalius C. Hanson and James L. Nelson 
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
Spring Weather and Habitat Conditions 
The drought of 1977 in southern Saskatchewan was 
broken by a winter of considerable snows and a spring of 
normal or above normal rainfall. Snow depths were such 
that ponds and potholes were renewed by a wet fall in 
1977. The wet fall provided a frost seal that should have 
resulted in a sizeable runoff. However, a slow thaw along 
with moderate spring temperatures resulted in a smaller 
runoff than was anticipated. Much of the moisture was 
taken up by the soil which was still well below its mois- 
ture carrying capacity; therefore, no sheet water was evi- 
dent during the spring and ponds did not fill to full levels. 
Most of the water areas, although vastly improved over 
1977, were still only one-half to two-thirds full. The May 
pond index was up 80% from 1977 but only 2% from 
average. 
Having and dry conditions in 1977 left little, if any, 
good perimeter habitat for upland nesters. Nesting cover 
for overwater nesters was improved from 1977 and could 
be considered adequate. Upland habitat probably was no 
better than the average of the past several good years. 
Breeding Populations (Table B-5) 
Total ducks decreased by 16% from 1977 levels and 
26% from average. Puddle ducks as a group were down 
13% from 1977 and 30% from the 10-year average. 
Diving ducks also fluctuated by species and were down 
29% from last year but up 10% from the average. The in- 
crease was due mainly to scaup and goldeneye. 
Mallards were down a sizeable 33% from 1977 and 
27% from the 10-year average. Pintails were back in the 
prairies in 1978 and showed a gain of 43 %; however, they 
were down 47% from average. Population estimates for 
other puddle ducks were mixed; gadwall, wigeon, and 
green-winged teal were above 1977, whereas blue- 
winged teal decreased. Shoveler indices remained about 
the same as 1977. The only puddle duck showing an in- 
crease over the average was the gadwall; all others 
showed decreases of varying amounts. 
Diving ducks were also mixed in their standings. Red- 
heads and canvasbacks in 1978 were down compared 
with 1977 and with the 10-year average. Redheads de- 
creased 19% from 1977 and 9% from the average. 
Canvasbacks were down 49% from 1977 and 39% from 
the average. Scaup decreased from 1977 but increased 
from the average, and ring-necked ducks were up in both 
categories. 
Summer Weather and Habitat Conditions 
Although many of the reporting stations recorded 
above-normal precipitation levels | April-10 July 1978, 
the average figure for southern Saskatchewan as a whole 
was below the norm. The number of July ponds as com- 
pared with the May figure for the same area revealed a 
dramatic decrease of 59%. The total number of July 
ponds was up 18% from 1977 (a poor year) but down 
21% from the 10-year average. Only 3 years since 1968 
had lower ponds numbers. Soil moisture content ap- 
peared to have improved which provided fair to good 
nesting habitat for renesters; however, overwater nesters 
may have suffered from low water levels. Temperatures 
in the area were reported as normal. 
Production (Table B-5) 
Evidence of a poor early nesting effort was revealed by 
the decreased number of class II and III broods recorded. 
The total number of broods was down by 10% compared 
with 1977 and also down 10 % compared with the 10-year 
average. 
With the improved water conditions it might have 
been expected that brood production would also be im- 
