and Wildlife Service at the Bear River Refuge has resulted 
Research by the Fish su 
ence of botulism while maintaining 
in discovery of principles which reduce the incid 
features of the environment favorable to feeding and reproduction of waterfowl. These 
principles were worked out chiefly by Sperry and Williams, and are discussed in detail 
by Sperry (197). They involve control of botulism by eliminating or reducing reflood- 
ing of lake-bottoms by wind action or otherwise. 
Severity of outbreaks also may be lessened by intelligent, well-organized, and 
well-controlled programs of herding ducks out of toxic areas. Airplanes, air-thrust 
boats, gunfire, pyrotechnics, and light beacons have been used for this purpose. 
Remedial measures include hospitalization and antitoxin therapy. Quortrup (191) 
compared numerous stomach washes and gastrointestinal dosages, all of which proved 
inferior to simple hospitalization including protection from sun and predators and 
provision of clean, fresh water and food. When protective hospitalization was combined 
with intraperitoneal inoculation of botulinum antitoxin, superior results were obtained 
By treating only the sickest birds with antitoxin, the cost per bird recovered was 
greatly reduced (Quortrup, 19). 
Introduction of pure water, salts, castor oil, or potassium permanganate into the 
stomach by catheter appears to be of no measurable value. The intoxicated duck is ~ 
best treated at present by botulinum antitoxin and hospitalization. Recovery may be 
aided by washing exudates from eyelids, by removal of leeches clogging the nostrils or 
gullet, and by cleaning mud from plumage. 
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS 
Much has been learned about botulism, but much remains to be understood about 
factors controlling intoxication. Although it is readily recognized that botulism 
outbreaks often occur on extensive alkaline mud flats, especially in sites of earlier 
botulism epizootics, Williams (190) has shown that the disease has occurred under 
conditions of flowing, nonstagnant river water. Furthermore, Sperry and Williams 
(1943-198) have indicated that presence of decaying bird carcasses in the marsh did 
not appreciably influence the incidence of new cases of avian botulism. Clostridium 
botulinum, type C, is so widely disseminated in duck-sickness areas that it approaches 
the ever-present state. Since the bacteria are so widely distributed, the idea of 
transmission of "infection" from one'infected" area to. another "uninfected" similar 
area is not applicable in explaining the occurrence of present-day outbreaks. Conse- 
quently, it seems inescapable that the sickness depends primarily on conditions favor- 
able for development and release of toxin and the ingestion thereof by ducks. 
_ An interesting aspect of the problem is the response of nearly dead birds to 
botulinum antitoxin injected into the body cavity. This response is notably different 
from that seen in humans showing symptoms of botulism intoxication. In man, once 
symptoms have become established, administration of antitoxin seems to have little or 
no value in altering the course of the illness or in aiding recovery. In a duck so 
heavily intoxicated that breathing is almost nondetectable (and almost sure to die if 
left alone) small quantities of antitoxin will often result in a recovery within a 
period as short as 2 to 3 days. The antitoxin seems to reverse the symptoms. lLearn- 
ing why this should occur in birds and not in humans may lead to new concepts and 
possibly higher significant findings. 
=8s 
