March 6, 191 5 
LAND AND WATER 
bC 
formed into the cords in which it is used. Propellants of tlie 
nitro-cclluiosc-nitro-glycerine type are used by Italy, Japan, 
Great Britain, the German and Austrian navy, Brazil, and 
Argentine. 
Modern smokeless powders develop a much larger total 
volume of gas for the same weight of charge than the old 
gunpowder, and, therefore, greater velocity of the projectile 
or bullet is attained than formerly, the gas production taking 
place gradually during the whole time of the passage of the . 
projectile down the bore. Although the total propelling force 
is greater it is more regularly sustained, so that the ma.ximum 
pressure is not increased. In the old powders almost complete 
combustion of the explosive took place before the projectile 
had time to move far down the bore of the gun, and therefore 
the muzzle was much shorter than in modern guns. 
We will now deal with the disruptive explosives of 
group 2, to which nitro-glycerine, dynamite, and gun-cotton 
belong. Practically every country has adopted picric acid 
as a bursting charge for shells, under a different name and 
with certain differences in composition consisting merely in 
the addition of an ingredient to reduce the melting point. 
Picric acid is obtained by the action of strong nitric acid 
on carbolic acid, and is a most powerful explosive. It is a 
pale yellow crystalline solid, intensely bitter in taste, has a 
high melting point, and was largely used as a dye long before 
its explosive properties were discovered. Eugene Turpin, of 
Paris, introduced picric acid mixed with collodion in the 
French Service under the name of melinite. Picric acid 
solidifies from the melted condition in a closer or denser form 
than from the water solution, in which form, it can more 
readily be exploded by detonators. Lyddite, which is used 
in the English Service, is simply melted and solidified picric 
acid. A disadvantage of picric acid is that when left in contact 
with metals or oxides it forms very dangerous detonating 
sjdts, and therefore it is necessary to varnish the interior of 
shells, giving special protection to the detonators and taking 
the utmost precautions to prevent access of foreign bodies 
while the acid is in the molten state. In order to overcome 
these disadvantages a new explosive has within the last few 
years been introduced, and is known as trinitrotoluene or, 
briefly, " T.N.T." The French Service calls it tolite, the 
Spanish Government triiit, while the Carbonite Works of 
Schlebusch call it trotyl. It is obtained by heating toluene 
with a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Toluene is 
a liquid hydro-carbon obtained along with benzene from coal 
tar. Trinitrotoluene melts at about 80° centigrade, is nearly 
insoluble in water, and does not form metallic salts, as picric 
acid does. It is used chiefly in shells, and has practically 
superseded picric acid. The Germans use it also with great 
success in mines and torpedoes, for which work gun-cotton is 
generally employed. In the Austrian Army and Navy a 
very powerful explosive has been introduced under the name 
of ammonal, which is a mixture of trinitrotoluene, ammonium 
nitrate, charcoal, and aluminium. 
Detonators are used for exploding the explosives of the 
first and second group. Since 1800, when Howard invented 
fulminate of mercury, and since 1815, when Joseph Egg 
made the first cap, but little progress has been made in the 
manufacture of these articles, the only development being 
that potassium chlorate enters partly into the compositirn 
of detonators. For smokeless powders a hotter flame is 
found essential, and is obtained by adding a combustible 
substance. A percussion cap consists of a little metal cap or 
case filled with a mixture of fulminate of mercury and 
potassium chlorate. When a percussion cap is struck by the 
hammer of the gun or rifle it detonates and evolves the 
necessary heat to inflame the neighbouring powder charge. 
The composition used in percussion caps varies according to 
the nature and size of the powder charge to be fired. It 
contains generally potassium chlorate, mercury fulminate, 
and antimony sulphide, to which ground glass is sometimes 
added. Detonators are generally made of copper tubing 
varying in length from one and a half inches up to six inches, 
and are charged with fulminate of mercury and other 
ingredients. These detonators are ignited either by means 
of safety fuses or by electricity. A safety fuse consists of flax, 
spun and twisted in the same manner as in cord making, having 
a column of fine gunpowder in the centre. Its rate of burning 
can be varied from seventy-five to forty-five seconds per yard. 
The electric fuse consists of a very small and fine piece of 
iridium-platinum wire, which is wrapped round with a small 
piece of fleecy gun-cotton in close proximity to the fulminate 
of mercury. When an electric current is passed through the 
fine wire it gets rod hot and sets fire to the gun-cotton, which 
in turn ignites the fulminate, and this, being placed in close 
contact to the explosive charge, detonates the latter. 
The electric fuse is employed in all large siege and naval 
guns. By this means a round can be fired at the exact 
moment by merely pressing a button, and all the guns can be 
fired simultaneously from some central position. It has been 
found that a small quantity of mercury fulminate placed on 
top of trinitrotoluene forms an excellent detonating mixture, 
and a great many detonators manufactured in Germany use 
this mixture. Mercury fulminate is obtained by dissolving 
three parts of mercury in thirty-six parts of nitric acid, 
keeping the mixture at a low temperature until dissolved, 
when seventeen parts of alcohol are added. The fulminate 
settles in crystals which are thoroughly washed, after which 
it is taken to the drying rooms. 
The loss of the French battleship Liberie and several 
other explosions brought home the importance of stability 
of explosives. Although modern explosives are far more 
stable than those in use twenty years ago, it is necessary to 
take strict precautions when storing large quantities of 
explosives. On all British warships cooling machinery is 
installed to keep the magazines at an even temperature of 
70°, as at and below this temperature it can be safely assumed 
that stability is permanently assured. 
THROUGH THE EYES OF A WOMAN 
The All-Powerful Present 
WE have often been told by philosophers and 
such-Uke authoritative people that the true 
secret of enjoyment is to live in the present 
and let the future take care of itself. Human 
nature is so constituted, however, that it is 
frequently difficult to follow this advice. It is a matter of 
temperament, no doubt, but even the most sanguine tempera- 
ment is apt to have its moments of reflection in which woes 
yet to come conspicuously figure. The odd thing is that at 
the moment, whether we be inveterate optimists or most 
pessimistically inclined, we are obliged, more or less, to live 
from day to day. Probing into the future is too unprofitable, 
as most of us have proved. It is quite impossible to prophesy 
the fate of Europe, society, or any individual a year or even 
six months ahead. I doubt, indeed, if we can do it for as 
long as that. So at last we have been obliged to curb any 
tendency to anticipate, and women have been specially 
constrained this way. Sufficient unto the hour is the evil 
thereof. It is a good motto, but lately we have been able to 
substitute the better one of letting the morrow take care of 
itself. Those women whose men are at the front learnt the 
necessity for this in the early stages of the war. The very 
stress of anxiety forced them to look upon no news as good 
news. It would have been impossible to get along otherwise. 
A pretty woman whose husband has lately been mentioned 
in dispatches voiced this to me a short while ago : "I never 
now," she said, " look forward one minute after the other if 
I can possibly help it. It does not work very well in the 
household, but it is infinitely better for me." And such an 
exaggeration as regards her house may be permitted to one 
whose menage runs on oiled wheels, whatever its mistress 
may say to the contrary. 
On a Radical Change 
In spite of all we may say and think to the opposite, 
in spite of the days which inevitably arise when we hardly 
think of such matters at all, the time comes when we must 
look for a while on the lighter side of things. It is really 
necessary, not only for our own sakes but for that of every- 
body connected with us. A well-written amusing novel can 
be as good as a tonic, an evening at a laughter-provoking 
play a rejuvenator. And in our less tense moments we can 
certainly spare time to marvel at the radical change which 
has overtaken women's clothes. Things being as they are, 
it is wonderful how it has come about, but that it has not 
only come but means to make a definite stay is obvious. 
Now, this change has not come from Paris. Whatever may 
be written or said to the contrary, the big ateliers of Paris 
— with a very few exceptions — are not open. It has doubtless 
been originated by the many model designers, who, escaping 
from Paris when she was threatened with siege, came over 
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