LAND AND WATER 
April 24, 1915. 
bined as a coinplcto unit like a rifla cartridge. The brass 
cartridge case contaiua in the base the pcrcusision cap, whiob 
is fired by the striker of the lock. After firing, the empty 
case remains behind, and is throwu out automatically when 
the breech is opened. 
UNIVERSAL SHELL. 
In the universal shell an effort has been made to combine 
the qualities of both high exjilosive and shrapnel shells. 
For field guns such a combination would be advantageous, 
as at present it is necessary to carry two classes of shells, and 
in the excitement of an engagement it is a very easy matter 
to use the wrong kind of ammunition. In order to introduce 
one type of shell many military inventors attacked the prob- 
lem. In February, 1903, Major van Essen, of the Dutch 
Army, patented a fairly satisfactoi-y design of universal shell,, 
which was taken up by Messrs. Ehrhardt and brought out in 
the next year. The universal shell was lat«r on taken up by 
Messrs. Krupp and Schneider, while the German Army 
adopted it for their field howitzers. 
The universal shell consists of a shrapnel body fitted with 
a high explosive head. The head contains the fuse, detonator, 
exploder, and main bursting charge of picric acid, which are 
enclosed in a steel chamber, entirely separated from the body 
Cii-fric^e 
ShM 
Teraission IhixiChaige SmckeTrodiu:lng 
Cap Towder 
UNIVERSAL SHELL 
of the shell, which is of the usual slirapncl type. The bullets 
are not packed in resin, but in T.N.T., which at the same 
time acts as an explosive. The bullets are blown out in the 
usual way by a small bursting charge, placed in the base of 
the shell. When the projectile is used for obtaining a high 
explosive effect the fuse is set for percussion. The high ex- 
plosive head detonates violently on striking an object, while 
immediately afterwards the burster and T.N.T. explode, 
throwing shell fragments and bullets with great force over a 
fairly wide area. 
For shrapnel effect the fuse is set so that the shell bursts 
in flight. The bullets are blown out while the head flies 
forward to explode on impact. 
This type of shell is especially useful against gunshields. 
When gunshields were introduced the high explosive shell 
was developed, as the ordinary shrapnel has little effect against 
gunshield.s. When the universal shell strikes a gunshield 
it generally tears large holes in it, while at the same time the 
shrapnel effect immediately following the high explosive action 
is liable to cause great havoc among the gun detachment. 
ARMOUR-PIERCING SHELL. 
Armour-piercing shells are mainly employed in the Navy 
for penetrating the heavy armour of battleships. The lata 
Sir W. Palliser introduced the first satisfactory armour- 
piercing shells in 1863. They were made of cast iron, the 
pointed head being cast in a metal mould and the cylindrical 
portion in ordinary refractory sand. By this means it was 
endeavoured to give extreme hardness to the head, which is 
the part required to perform the piercing of the armour. They 
had the advantage of being very cheap, and were successful 
against wrought iron and soft steel armour, but broke into 
fragments against hardened steel armour. 
The Holtzer projectiles, which were introduced in 1886, 
had a great reputation, and were made of chromium steel. 
The addition of chromium increases the hardness and touo-h- 
ness of the steel without increasing its brittleness. When, 
however, improved steel armour came to be employed the 
chromium steel projectiles, tempered and hardened as they 
were to a very high degree, could not pierce the plates. The 
introduction of the soft steel cap gave the advantage to the 
projectile in the struggle armour versus projectile. 
The term capped projectile applies to a projectile the 
point of which has been covered by a cap of soft metal with 
a view of increasing its penetrative effect. In 1873 the 
Eussians carried out certain experiments with capped pro- 
jectiles, but no reliable information was published. Captain 
English, a British engineer, observed that the penetrative 
powers against a Harvey armoured plate were increased 
25 per cent, when a comparatively thin wrought iron plate 
Fas placed in front of it. He came to the conclusion that the 
soft iron plate acted a.'i a sort of cuihion, preventing tht 
point froiu being broken off and steadying it previous t« 
penetration. 
As soon as the necessity of capping projectiles became 
apparejit, various experiments in different countries wert 
carried out, but it wa.s not until 1901 that the utility of cap- 
ping was fully recognised. Tlie difference between capped 
and uncapped projectiles is astonishing. In a trial 6-inch 
capped and uncapped projectiles were fired against 11.8-iuch 
Krupp cemented armour plate. Uncapped projectiles fired 
with a striking velocity of 2,827 feet per second broke upou 
AIU.TOUIIPIERCING SHELL 
the face of the plate without perforating it, while capped pro- 
jectiles with striking velocities as low as 2,799 feet per second 
completely perforated the plate without breaking up. At 
the moment of impact the nose of the projectile is embedded 
in the soft iron and thus obtains additional support, prevent- 
ing it from being fractured. Modern armour-piercing shells 
are cast from a special mixture of chrome steel, and are sub- 
sequently forged into .shape in order to secure a better grain. 
The chief difficulty consists in hardening and tempering 
the projectile, especially the point. There are generally two 
hardening processes — the first by quenching in oil, followed 
by tempering, and the second after all mechanical work upon 
the projectile is completely finished. The point of the pro- 
jectile obtains its required hardness in the final process, but 
the remainder of the shell does not h.ave the same degree of 
hardne-ss, as when once the point of the projectile has pene- 
trated, the body passes the hole without difficulty. Fiually, 
the finished projectile is submitted to a gentle heat treatment, 
which to a certain extent ensures it against fracture due to 
sudden changes in temperature. 
The projectiles have a small cavity to contain the bursting 
charge, which, as a rule, does not exceed 3 per cent, of the 
total weight of the projectile. They are stored for three 
months before being filled with the explosive owing to their 
liability to split from the strains set up in the metal by the 
hardening process. 
We have briefly dealt with the principal projectiles used 
in modern warfare. There are, however, some special type of 
shells which are used at uight time for illuminating purposes. 
Star shells are employed with field artillery. They are 
made more or loss on the same basis as the shrapnel shell, 
but instead of using bullets, cylinders of some light-giving 
composition are employed, which are ignited when the shell 
bursts. 
In another type of shell a number of small parachutes are 
folded together, which open out after the shell has exploded. 
In the centre of the parachute an illuminating charge is carried 
which is automatically ignited when the shell bursts. Krupp 
has devoted special attention to this type of shell. 
QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S FIELD FORCE FUND. 
THE prcpasal (or a Wellington, Waterloo, and Napoleon Lo*ri Eshibi- 
tion of pictures, trophies, &c., in aid of the above fund, dest-ribwl 
ia L.VND AND W.^TEB of March 20 by Mr. J. Landfear Ltic*i, of th« 
Spectacle Malicrs' Ccmpany, is now uii-Jor consideration in detail by th» 
Ooaiit«ss of Bective, Chainuan of the Fiind. 
Offers ol historic relics and objecta for the Exhibition are already 
to hand. 
The Hon. C'hariotlo Knollys has again written to Mr. Lncas, atating 
that she has explained the present position of affairs to H«r Majesty 
Queen Alexandra. 
MR. IIILAIRE BELLOGS WAR LECTURES. 
Treston Town H.iU Wednasday 23 AnriJ, 3 & 8 
Blackpool Winter Gardens Tiinrsday 29 April, 3.^15 & a. 
Liverjjool Pliiiharmonic HaJl... Friday 30 Aoril, 6 50 
Liverpool Philh.armonic Hall.. Saturday 1 .Wv, 3. 
Bournemouth... Winter ftirdens Monday". 5 fjay' 3.30 i 3 
London Queen's Hall WednescUy 6 May, 8.30. 
NfR. FRED T. J.\NE ON THE NAVAL WAR. 
Manchester Free Trade Uall Friday 23 \m'A 8. 
Scarborough Opera House Satordav 24 ApriL 3* 
i^°7""V To^-n Hal! Tuesday. 27 April, a 
Folkestone Town Hall Wednesday 23 Apr:!, a, 
MR. CRAWFURD PRICE ON ".SERBIA." 
Bournemouth.... Winter Gardens Friday 23 April, 3 4 1 
COMMANDER BELLAIRS, R.N., M.P., WILL LECTURB AT 
Bournemouth..,^ Eriday. JO ApxU, 5.30 i 8. 
14* 
