DESERTS. 291 
THE ARALO-CASPIAN BASIN. 
COMPLICATIONS AND FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES ARISING FROM SHAPE AND SIZE. 
The broad definitions and most of the great features of the Aralo-Caspian 
basin have been so well set forth by Professor Pumpelly that little more than 
a description of its four deposition zones remains to be here undertaken. In the 
Tarim and Fergana basins we found that plains of deposition and their deformed 
margins express fully as much as their bordering mountains do, and perhaps even 
more, of the history of their basins. This is especially so of the Aralo-Caspian, 
where lacustrian zones become an important aid. Its peculiar shape and but 
half-isolated state, with naught but low divides north and west, have given it a 
history so involved and complicated with outside influences that we must be 
contented with explaining only a very few of its greater features and direct our 
attention to those concerning the archeology of its southern part. 
An important part of its physiography has already entered this report in 
undertaking that of the Pamir, Alai valley and Kizil Su, Karategin and Hissar, 
Zerafshan, and Fergana basin, which taken together compose most of its high 
eastern drainage area. In considering the immense area of high mountains drained 


r : -—— a 2a en - - —-- ae 

Fig. 466.—Manish Valley Terraces (in the Kopet Dagh Mountains). 
by the nine rivers—Ural, Chu, Syr, Zerafshan, Amu, Murg-ab, Tedjen, Atrek, and 
Kur—and the great flow of water brought in by the Volga, draining all of Eastern 
Russia, we must marvel at the degree of aridity signified by such a small area 
of water exceeding evaporation as that which survives in the Aral and Caspian— 
its two shrunken seas. Only half its larger rivers reach their seas at all, while 
the remainder with scores of other streams, by no means small, dwindle away 
on the plains, and others fail to reach even the plains, but die far up in the valleys 
they excavated when precipitation was heavier. Central-Asian hydrography is 
thus often the reverse of drainage systems in regions of ordinary rainfall familiar 
to most of us. Many of its rivers have the aspect of a drainage system reversed 
as they decrease in size downstream and finally split into distributaries resembling 
tributaries on the plain. 
The evolution of a basin so large as the Aralo-Caspian can not be expected 
to have been through the cyclical uniformity followed by a small basin with a 
complete periphery of mountains. Indeed, it is so large that there is no surprise 
in finding that different portions entered from time to time into fairly independent 
series of changes, or developed in a way causally connected only in a broad sense. 
