ORDO PERISSODACTYLA. 385 
of the heavy draft-horse of Europe; and now Kraemer* comes to the conclusion 
that the horses of classical Rome and Greece represent a cross between the heavy 
European horse and the Asiatic type. Notwithstanding the very plausible fact 
of the domestication of the European wild horse, however, it can not be contra- 
dicted that this wild horse itself could have come from Asia. 
In considering the horse of the Anau kurgan, it is primarily worthy of note 
(1) That the horse from the lowest to the uppermost layers is represented by a 
great quantity of bones, to an extent which in the lower layers is only equaled 
by those of the bovid; (2) that in these bones we can recognize only one variety 
of horse, which thus occurs in the lowest layers with wild animals only and in 
the higher strata with the other domesticated animals; (3) that the percentage 
of the bones of the horse, as compared with those of other domesticated animals, 
also increases in period Ib. ‘This last fact permits the conclusion that the horse 
came to the table of the inhabitants more often in the later than in the earliest 
period of the development of the kurgan civilization, from which we might next 
conclude that the horse was then easier to catch and had, therefore, become tamed 
or domesticated. 
It is not possible to assert with logical certainty the correctness of our con- 
clusion that we have here, at least in the upper strata, a domesticated horse, 
as we were able to do in the cases of the bovid and sheep through a study of the 
skeletal remains. I hold that no one is able to determine with certainty, from 
the study of a few bones of a fossil or a subfossil horse, whether the individual 
was wild or domesticated. 
There are wanting in the case of the horse precisely the criteria which we 
have in the bovids, where in consequence of stabling or of restriction of freedom 
of movement, the substantia compacta of the bones is thrown into the background 
in favor of the spongiosa. Again, we are not able to base a distinction between 
the domesticated and the wild animal on a change in the skull, as we do in the 
sheep. On the contrary, the mode of life of the horse, especially among inhabi- 
tants of the steppes, remains the same as in the wild condition. Harnessing, 
and the use of the organs as in the wild condition, insures the stability of the 
bodily form and of the skeleton; and the influence of the weight of the rider carried 
by the animal is not further perceptible in the bones. Consequently, in the horse 
of a primitive people, such as were the inhabitants of the Anau kurgan in the 
neolithic age, the quality of tameness is wholly psychological and is therefore 
not perceptible in an anatomical investigation. 
The determinable remains of the horse from the kurgan number about 1,250. 
There are, however, but 120 well-preserved pieces, which repay an exact measure- 
ment and study. Beginning with the examination of the cranial remains, we 
find the best among them to be a right upper-jaw with the whole dental row and 
half of the bone palate. A comparison of the measurements of these pieces with 
other horse skulls shows a good agreement with a subfossil skull from Western 

* Die Rassen der Pferdeinder klassischen Staaten nach litterarischen und bildlichen Quellen. Deutsche 
Landw. Tierzucht, No. 37, pp. 433-437. 
