ftetrospect of French Literature —H istory. 
been in a worse condition than either of 
them, Scotland was subjected to the 
feudal yoke: Ireland approached to the 
savage state. Dertmar, aud Sweden 
were les desraded; but human nature 
attained the ultimate degree of ulisery 
on the banks of the Vistula and the Ne- 
va; while Spain, occupied by the\Goths, 
groaned beneath the toad of oppression ; 
and slavery and feudality degraded italy 
itself. It was from these, however—it 
was from Spain and Italy—that a few 
scattered rays of hope seemed ready to 
issue. 
“¢ [tis well known, how much we are 
indebted to the Arabians established in 
these two countries; and however afflict- 
ing the quarrels between civil aad eccle- 
siastical power may seem, yet liberty 
and property in !taly seemed to derive 
advantage even from misfortunes. ‘The 
superiority of address over-force; and of 
intelizvence over matter, egan to be 
known. Something grand was discovered 
in the plans of the popes, more especi- 
ally of Gregory L1.—of that Hilcebrand, 
who created popes berore he himself be- 
came one; and tned, after being en- 
circled by the tiara, to bereave the em- 
erors of the claim of the 1nvestitures, to 
Heche hiniself the centre of all power, 
to govern them, and prepare for those - 
crusades, 0 which he and Sylvestre had 
conceived the vast iiea. He died; but 
if his genius disappeared with him, his 
designs and his power at least survived 
in Urbain. t would seem, that the spint 
of the ancient Romans had animated 
these audacious pontitix, and that a se- 
cret voice told them, that Rome ought 
to be once more the mistress of the 
universe. 
“ Constantinople, however, still ap- 
peared to maintain the superiority. That 
city had never heen taken or ravaged by 
the barbarians; aud notwithstandiag the 
horrors that preceded the reign of Alexis 
‘Comnenus, and the attack of the Bul- 
garians on the north, of the Turks on 
the south, and the Nerman priaces on 
the west, the throne of the East, to the 
astonishment of all, still stood erect. 
Although its history exhibits a deplorable 
series of crimes, and of punishments, and 
mutilations—the loss of eyes and the 
cloister had constantly been the punish- 
ment of those ambitious sovereigi.s who 
had appeared, and were overturned, 
each in his turn, in this bloody arena— 
yet it was evident that the Greeks be- 
gen to breathe under Alexis, and that 
675 
the empire once more bevan to elevate 
its august head. slap one 
__“ Constantinople was then the centre 
of an immense commerce, which directed 
its course from that metropolis towards 
Italy—tialy, already known by its trade 
with the Levant, as well-as with Western 
Europe, and more especially with Flan- 
ders, which began to figure in the 
commercial world. But it is easy to 
suppose how feeble these first essays 
Inust have been. Whea there was neither 
surety for goods nor for persons; when 
private war was permitted, and conti- 
nually recurred to; when petty sove- 
reigns on ali sides set up their preten- 
sions; when every lord, rushing out of 
his fortress, ravaged the country, and 
seized on his prey—whiere was liberty to 
be found? Could culture make a rapid 
progress; could coramerce be enlarged, 
so as to aggrandize and enrich nations; 
could knowledge be increased, and be- 
come more extensive? Are we asto- 
nished, then, to behold servitude, both 
agricultural and domestic, establish itself 
every where? that fiefs should become 
hereditary? that arriere fiefs should be 
multiplied? that mdependent properties 
should be transformed into feudal ones? 
and that a crowd of men, until then re- 
puted free, should precipitate themselves 
into servitude, merely to escape servi- 
tude? How was it possible for the hu- 
man mind to shae off these shackles ? 
was it possible to keep up any extensive 
communication? ‘The sole mode of ap- 
proximation, was for the purpose of 
fivhting. So far from the art of priating 
being iavented, paper: scarcely existed ; 
for this invention only dates its origm 
from the end of the 11th century. . The 
language of man was equally barbarous 
with his reason: a degenerate Latinity 
was for a long time the jancuage of the 
learned and the intelligent. And what 
learned men, and what sages!” | 
We are now told, that in the 11th 
century, the first accents of the Trouba- 
dours began to be heard; and that it 
was in 1122, that William Count de 
Poitou and Duke of Aquitain died. But 
the tales and romances of the French 
Trouveurs exhibited iguorance and. ab- 
7 
surdity; while the language, still rough | 
and disgusting, offered but few resources 
to genius. 
_ THE CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES. 
These are described to be of twa 
kinds—the one public, and the other 
private. In the hrst place, the extraor; 
rst 4 dinary 
a ay 
