Retrospect of French Literature—Hisiory. 
einity, and plundered. the merchants 
during their journies from one city to 
another. | The cities of Lombardy and 
the Rhine, entered into similar confede- 
rations; and these associations of free- 
men, possessing a beneficient activity, 
constitute a portion of the small nuniber 
of establishments truly humane, from 
which modern nations derive any glory 
during those early times. 
Bohemia, so far as liberty of consci- 
ence was concerned, exhibited a repub- 
fican spirit. . The partisans of John Huss 
had displayed equal bravery and .firm- 
ness in respect to their religious belief, 
and the capitulation entered into by. the 
princes of the house of Austria, afforded 
a bright example to the rest of the Chris- 
tian world. 
The south of Germany chiefly apper- 
tained to the house of Austria, which, 
adorned with the imperial dignity, and 
enriched with the states of Burgundy, un- 
der Maximilian and the crown of Spain, 
during the time of hissuccessor Charles V. 
as well as with a portion of Italy, no 
longer disguised its designs for attaining 
universal monarchy. 
France, which was destined to concur 
in saving Europe from this state of oppro- 
brium, had just repulsed the English from 
her territories. The permanent and 
mercenary army which she had_ been 
obliged to keep on fvot, served to re- 
unite the chief provinces to the crown, 
~ to despoil the great and the little vassals, 
and enrich the state at their expense. 
Between France and Austria, and “at 
the expense of the latter,” was formed 
a repubnc of simple and energetic moun- 
taineers, who exhibited all the courage 
and all the virtues of the ancient Spar- 
tans. England, which had so long nege 
iccted that maritime superiority for which 
she seemed destined by nature, and had 
consumed her strength in acquiring a 
few provinces in the west of France, 
““was lucky enough to be driven back 
into her own island.” This was for- 
tunate for the inhabitants, who hence- 
forth employed all their activity towards 
the establishment of her liberty, and the 
increase of her fleets. Even then she 
was one cf the first powers of Europe, 
and would have played a far more im: 
portant part, had Henry VII. been less 
occupied with his passions, his amours, 
and his cruelties. 
_ Spain had expelled the Moors; and‘ 
Ferdinand, by the marriage of Isa- 
bella, joined Castille to Arragon. These 
united states were inherited by Charles V. 
G41 
and under him formed a mere province 
of the Austrian monarchy. 
In the mean time, the political syss _ 
tem, and the new species of war intro- 
duced, became more favourable to the 
great powers. The invention of artillery 
rendered petty castles useless, and little 
princes and.states were unable to build 
extensive fortresses. Europe too, did 
not seem large enough for its inhabitants, 
who now discovered the way to America 
and the Indies; in short, a new epoch 
seemed to be at hand. 
IL. Religion. 
Superstition, which had more or less 
tormented all the European © nations, 
began to relax among some of them, and 
men were every where to be found, who 
combated it with effect. The doctrines 
of the Vaudois and Albigeois in France, 
was not forgotten; Wickliffe had been 
listened to in England; and Huss in Bo- 
hemia. Many of the princes. were 
shocked at the pretensions of the Roman 
pontiff; some dared to oppose him open- 
ly; and the university of Paris served 
more than once as the orgamof the sove- 
reign power in reply to the menaces of 
Rome. An appeal was openly made to 
a future council, which was unreservedly 
declared to be superior to the pope. . 
A few sovereigns, however, still bent 
their knee to his Holiness. Charles V. 
was obliged, from policy, to courthim, in 
order to maintain his consequence. in 
Ttaly. His subjects in Spain too, where 
the inquisition had been introduced, and 
where the terror produced by the Moors 
had. consigned the people to the most 
deplorable superstition, would have in- 
stantly revolted against their sovereign 
had he appeared a less zealous. catholic 
than themselves. 
Those countries which enjoved ares 
publican constitution, and which seemed 
most addicted to liberty, of course ex- 
hibited themselves the.least timid in ree 
spect to Rome. The noble firmaess 
with which the senate of Venice con- 
stantly opposed her usurpations, ‘is well 
known ; and there were cantons “ essen- 
tially republican, in Holland and {lols 
stein, and. ali the lower varts of Ger- 
many, which never had been-really pas 
pists, and whom the reformation found 
already reformed.” 
Besides, the eyes of mankind began to 
be opened. The impolitic violence of 
some popes; the. scandalous lives of 
others; the licentiousness of their courts * 
and their capital; the immoral lives of 
the clergy ; the ignorance and eirontery 
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