Am.  Jour.  Pharm.  ) 
June,  1877.  / 
Varieties. 
319 
sity,  according  to  his  option;  while  the  state  requires,  with  uncompromising  severity, 
the  satisfactory  passage  of  a  comprehensive  final  examination.    To  this  the  student 
is  only  admitted  after  having  attended  the  lectures  and  laboratory  instruction  for  at 
least  three  lecture  terms  (ij  years);  and,  upon  passing  it,  the  state  grants  him  a 
license  for  the  practice  of  pharmacy  throughout  the  empire.1     Many  graduates 
choose  to  acquire,  by  a  continuation  of  university  and  laboratory  studies,  and  by 
the  subsequent  passage  of  an  examination  before  the  philosophical  faculty  of  a 
university,  the  degree  of  Phil.D.     Similar,  and  nearly  equally  strict,  is  the  course 
of  pharmaceutical  education  and  qualification  in  Austria,  Hungary,  Russia,  Switzer- 
land, Sweden,  Norway  and  Denmark;  but  somewhat  less  strict  in  Roumania,  Italy 
and  Greece.    In  France,  pharmaceutical  education  is  controlled  by  the  state  so  far 
that  students,  after  a  more  or  less  brief  experience  in  drug-stores,  have  to  attend, 
for  one  or  two  years,  the  lectures  at  one  of  the  pharmaceutical  schools  at  Paris, 
Nancy  or  Montpelier,  or  at  the  medical  and  pharmaceutical  schools  at  Nantes  or 
Marseilles,  and  subsequently  must  pass  an  examination.     Upon  the  satisfactory 
passage  of  this,  the  student  receives,  according  to  the  time  of  his  study  and  the 
price  he  is  able  to  pay,  the  diploma  as  a  pharmacien  of  the  first,  or  of  the  second 
class.    The  former  is  entitled  to  establish  himself  indiscriminately,  while  the  latter 
is  allowed  to  do  so  only  in  small  cities.    The  standard  of  pharmaceutical  education 
is  somewhat  higher  in  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands,  but  perhaps  less  strict  in  prac- 
tical proficiency.    The  student  has  first  to  attend  lectures,  and  then  to  attain  skill 
and  experience  in  pharmacy,  when  he  is  admitted  to  examination  and  subsequently 
to  practice.    In  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  course  of  pharmaceutical  education,  and 
the  qualification  required  on  the  part  of  the  state,  seem  to  be  similar  to  those  in 
France.    The  three  Spanish  universities  in  Madrid,  Barcelona,  and  Granada,  and 
the  medical  schools  at  Lisbon,  Oporto  and  Coimbra,  in  Portugal,  afford  lectures  to 
pharmaceutical  students.    Education  in  this  department,  in  Turkey,  while  it  is 
not  uniformly  obligatory,  embraces  an  apprenticeship  of  three  years,  and  a  subse- 
quent attendance  upon  the  lectures  at  the  Imperial  Institute,  in  Constantinople, 
which  also  has  the  direction  of  the  examination,  and  grants  licenses  to  those  who 
apply  for  and  pass  it  successfully.    In  Great  Britain,  the  state  has  exerted  an  obli- 
gatory influence  on  the  qualification  of  pharmacists  since  1868;  but  it  leaves  this 
control  to  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  and  to  the  Privy  Council. 
The  only  restriction  consists  in  a  registry  statute,  requiring  two  successive  examina- 
tions: a  preliminary  one  for  registration  as  "apprentice  or  student,"  and  a  minor 
examination,  for  a  license  as  "  chemist  and  druggist,"  or  a  major  examination  for  a 
liecnsi  as  t:  pharmaceutical  chemist."    The  state  of  pharmacy,  and  the  standard  of 
pharmaceutical  education,  in  the  various  countries  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
America,  is  comparatively  little  known.    In  several  of  them,  as  for  instance,  in 
Mexico,  Brazil,  Peru,  and  others,  the  state  exercises  a  more  or  less  strict,  although 
not  uniformly  efficient,  control;  while,  in  other  states,  either  the  qualification  for 
the  practice  of  pharmacy  is  not  restricted,  or  the  control  is  more  nominal  than  real. 
Pharmaceutical  education  and  practice  in  Canada  stand  in  close  relation  to  those  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 
See  also  Pharmacy  in  the  German  Empire;  "Am.  Journ.  Pharm.,"  Aug.,  Sept.,  1871,  pp.  337  and  389. 
