Biosophy 
NOTE ON THEORIES OF THE CONSTITUTION 
OF MATTER. 
118. The following note on the various older 
theories of the Constitution of Matter is adopted from 
an appendix by Professor Flint, D.D., to Tait’s “Proper- 
ties of Matter” (1894). Recent theories and discoveries 
will be referred to in a later chapter of this Outline. 
A. All material substances are infinitely divisible into 
parts of the same nature as themselves and as com- 
plex, even as to qualities, as themselves. 
B. All material substances are divisible into ultimate 
indivisible parts as complex as the whole. 
One or other of these two theories (it is, perhaps, 
impossible to determine which) is attributed 
‘by Lucretius to Anaxagoras (about B.C. 500- 
428), whose real opinion, however, was prob- 
ably the one which follows. ‘ 
C. All material substances are formed from a primi- 
tive matter, “in which all things were together, in- 
finitely numerous, infinitely little,” and of which 
each infinitely little part was infinitely complex. 
D. All material substances result from the combination 
of a few kinds of material elements (e.g., the “Four 
Elements," carth, water, air, fire), each of which 
is composed of particles like to itself, e.g., earth of 
earthy particles, air of aerial particles. 
This was the theory of the Hindu, Kanada, the 
Greek Empedocles (about B.C. 490-430), and a host 
of medieval physicists. 
E. All material substances are states or stages of one 
primitive matter or element, e.g., of water or air.— 
The theory of Thales (B.C. 640-546), Anaximenes 
(fl. about B.C. 550), etc. 
F. All material substances are divisible into ultimate 
indivisible parts, “Atoms.” “strong in solid single- 
ness," which have no qualitative but only quantita- 
tive differences, and which variously come together 
through motion in a void. This is the atomic theory 
as taught by Democritus (about B.C. 460-340), 
Epicurus (B.C. 342-270), etc. 
G. All material substances are divisible into molecules 
and ultimately into elementary atoms (of over 70 
kinds) possessed of distinctive qualitative as well 
as quantitative differences.—The atomic theory of 
nineteenth century chemistry. 
H. All material substances are divisible into so-called 
“atoms,” but these are complicated structures con- 
sisting of congregations of truly elementary par- 
ticles, identical in nature and differing only in 
position, arrangement, motion, etc., and the chemi- 
cal “atoms” are produced from the physical “par- 
ticles” by processes of evolution.— Theory of Her- 
bert Spencer (1820-1903), etc., which gained ground 
during the nineteenth century, and, towards the end, 
began to receive experimental confirmation. 
I. ΑΙ material substances are composed of atoms, not 
hard and solid and on that account indivisible, but 
the rotatory rings or infinitesimal whorls of an: 
incompressible frictionless fluid (the ether"), sup- 
96 
M. 
P. 
un 
posed to be homogeneous and perfect, but the nattire 
of which is not otherwise described; and all the 
differences of material substances are due to the 
characters and behaviours of their component rings 
or whorls.—Lord Kelvin’s (1824-1907) Vortex 
Atomic Theory. 
The matter which is the object of the senses is the 
product of a world-building power moulding in 
accordance with eternal ideas an uncreated substra- 
tum, the “receptacle” and "nurse" of “forms,” but 
itself devoid of form and definite attributes.— 
Theory of Plato (B.C. 430-347). 
The matter which is an object of sense is a synthesis 
of form with a primary matter which is merely 
capacity and passivity—-a synthesis produced by a 
formative cause, which must be both an efficient 
and final cause.—Theory of Aristotle (B.C. 384- 
322). 
Impenetrability (by which I take Prof. Flint to 
mean that space actually occupied by one ultimate 
particle of matter cannot at the same moment be 
. occupied by another) is the essence of matter.— 
‘Theory of various physicists. 
Extension (meaning volume, or bulk) is the essence 
of matter. “Give me extension and motion and I 
will construct the world.”—Descartes (A.D. 1590- 
1649). 
Material things are “modes” of extension, which is 
one of the only two discoverable “attributes” of the 
one "substance."— Spinoza (1632-1677). 
Matter in its ultimate constitution consists of meta- 
physical points which give rise to sensible matter 
by states of effort transitional from rest to motion. 
—Vico (1668-1744). 
The ultimate elements of matter are indivisible 
points without extension but surrounded by spheres 
of attractive and repulsive force which alternate 
according to the distance of these points up to a 
certain degree of remoteness.—Boscovich (1711?- 
1787). 
The physical universe is constituted by the uncon- 
scious percepfions of a vast collection of unextended 
spiritual forces or monads, endowed with a power 
of spontaneous development and with something of 
the nature of desire and sentiment; and the proper- 
ties which physical science ascribes to the ultimate 
clements of matter are the modes under which the 
reciprocal actions of the monads appear to sense. 
' —Leibnitz (1616-1716). 
Matter is a mental picture in which *mind-stuff" is 
the thing represented, and mind-stuff is constituted 
by feelings which can exist by themselves, without 
forming parts of a consciousness, but which are also 
woven into the complex form of human minds.— 
Clifford (1845-1879).. 
Matter apart from perception has no existence; 
physical phenomena are essentially sensations or 
ideas; “bodies” are groups or clusters of actual or 
expected sensations arranged according to so-called 
