of the starch grain varies widely according to 
the condition of maturity of the fruit. A table 
is given showing the results of measurements of 
starch grains from severalvarieties. Generally 
king, the starch grains from within the core 
line are smaller than those from the torus flesh. 
in the ripening of apples the intercellular air in 
the llesh of the fruit seems to’increase constantly 
asthe fruit approaches maturity. The specific 
gravity appears to diminish ‘from 2 to 5 per 
cent. 
The “mealiness” of apples was found to be 
Aue largely to the softening of the middle iamelia 
of the cell wails which ogcurs in the last stages 
of ripening. In mealy apples the cells under 
pressure are, for the most part, separated from 
each other instead of being torn apart indi- 
vidually as in less mature fruit. Mealy apples 
may contain as much juice as apples not 80 ripe, 
but do not appear to because of the separation 
of the cells instead of their splitting or tearing 
apart in crushing. Photographs are given show- 
ing the starch content of apples and its position 
in the apple at different stages of maturity. 
Japan and Hybrid 
Plums. 
HH. N. Srannes, 
Generally speaking, the Japan and hybrid 
plums are much more useful in Georgia than 
native or European varieties. “ They are larger, 
handsomer, better shippers, and usually firmer 
and of finer quality than any of the natives, 
except certain members of the Americana and 
Miner groups They are also, as a rule, less 
subject to curculio.” From the data given in 
the tables of blooming and fruiting, it appears © 
that more than half of. the varieties that are 
farliest to bloom are latest to ripen fruit, 
Among the maladies of plums special atten- 
tionis given to “ wilt" crown gall, and the 
horer. The * wilt” is believed to be bacterial 
in character, but attempts’ at inoculation have 
thus far failed. The varieties su far exempt from 
“wilt”. are Apple, Bartlett, America, Marietta, 
Excelsior, and Babe:ck, all except Babcock 
being hybrids. 
Relative to the borer, the author states that 
contrary to previous belief 90 per cent. of the 
larvze emerge from their channels in the base of 
the ‘tree trunk in the vicinity of the station 
about the first of August insteaa cf much earlier, 
as it was assumed they would do. The remedy 
suggested for this insect is to wrap the base of 
each tree about the last week in July for 18 in, 
from the yround in brown paper or newspaper, 
tying it with twine and wire. After this the 
base of each trunk should be mounded up IMin. 
high around the paper coverjng. About the last 
week in October the paper is remoyed and the 
worms dug out. ' 
GRIFFITHS BROS’ 
“THAS 
THE AUSTRALIAN GARDENER. 
May 16, 1906. 
Manures & Manuring 
Wittram Anaus, B.Sc. 
a 
Lime. 
Lime in its various forms is one of the oldest 
manures, having been used for agricultural pur- 
poses from time immemorial. The importance 
attached to the liming of land may be hest 
gauged by the attention given to this subject 
by the old agricultural chemists and to the 
prominence it occupies in the older agricultural 
literature. In more modern days, even in the 
older countries, on account of the increase of 
artificials, especially basic slag, liming has gene- 
rally gone out of practice. Of late years, how- 
ever, farmers in the old country have recognised 
the mistake they were making, and are now 
going back to the custom of their forefathers in’ 
making greater use of lime as a manure, although 
they are adopting a different method of applying 
it to that in vogue, say, fifty years ago, 
It must be borne in mind that lime is an 
essential plaut food, and soils that are lacking 
in it cannot produce good crops Nevertheless, 
it is only under certain circumstances that it is 
necessary to add it to the soil for this purpose, 
as most soils contain it in sufficient quantity to 
support plant growth. One class of land, how- 
ever, very often found wanting in lime, is that 
under grass. In such, lime tends to sink down 
in the soil, often forming what is known as a 
pan in the subsoil. he want of this constituent 
in pasture land explains the splendid effect that 
a top-dressing contajnjng lime has on land lying 
under grass for any length of time. It is gene- 
rally considered that when soils contain less 
thin from .6 to 1 per cent. of lime they are 
deficient in it. Moreover, soils which contain a 
large amount of orgapic matter require a larger 
percentage than the aboye mentioned. 
But although gonsiderable benefit may be 
derived from the application of lime as applying 
the necessary food for plant growth, still the 
‘ greatest advantage 1s to be got from its indirect 
action in the sojl, both chemical and mechanical. 
And in or er to thoroughly uuderstand this 
indirect action of lime it will be negessary for 
us to consider its forms and their relation to 
one another. 
Limestoye.—Lime occurs in nature generally 
as carbonate of lime, in what is known as lime- 
stone and chalk, and we find large areas in most 
countries where the rocks are composed of such. 
In the old coyntry we have the Downs in the 
Sonth of England and the Wolds of Yorkshire 
composed of different forms of litaestone, and 
in South Australia our limestone sojls are well 
known. Other forms of carbonate of lime are 
marble and marl, aud it has been estimated that 
about one-sixth of the earth’s crust consists of 
this material in one form or another. It may be 
well to explaip that the chemist speaks of lime- 
stone as ‘ calcinm carbonate.” 
Forms 1y WuicH ro Apery Lime.—The most 
common form in which this material is purchased 
by farmers is that known as burned lime or 
caustic lime. To produce a good lime for agrj- 
cultural purposes, the chalk or limestone used 
in the kiln should contain a pure limestone of 
carbonate of lime, say, 90 per cent; from ong 
ton of pure limestone 11} cwt of burnt lime 
are produced, aud 8 cwt of carbonic acid gas 
asses off into the wr. Although in olden days 
— 
Thomas phosphate. This, when it can be done, 
is undoubtedly the best way in which to apply 
the lime. It allows of the slaking process to 
take place very gradually in the soil, and avoids” 
the risk of the slaked lime going into the mild’ 
form, which it does during slaking on exposure 
to the air. 1g 
Tt is not always possible, howeyer, to get the 
ground lime, and when it has tu be slaked or , 
reduced on the land, the best way to do so is to. 
put it down in small heaps from the dray, add a* 
little water from a water-cart, and then cover ~ 
up with soil, In a short time the lime slakes 
and reduges to a fine powder, which can then be 
fairly evenly distributed on’ the land ‘by means 
of a spade or shovel. Care ‘should be ‘taken 
whan slaking not to add too much water; as 
when. this happeys the lime gets into. a-pasty 
condition, . One ton of good lime will absorb, 
to reduce it to the fine, powdery condition, 
about 6 ewt of water, In America the shells are 
generally slaked in a heap, and then distributed 
on the soil by means of an ordinary drill, but 
this is rather an unenviable task with hot lime, 
especially on a windy day, j 
But although this is the most common form 
in which to apply lime, still the ground form ig 
in every way preferable. In such a condition 
much smaller quantities can be very easily dis- 
tributed on the soil, and it further allows of the 
slaking going on gradually in the soil, and this 
process has a very beneficial effect on its mecha- 
nical condition, especially if the soil is a heavy 
one. 
Quantity or LimE To AppLy.—Liming in th¢ 
older regime of agriculture was undertaken onl 
at long intervals. Farmers hold their land in 
the old country in terms or leases of nineteen 
years’ duration, and it was consjdered best to 
apply one heavy dressing to the Jand once during 
this lease. As much as thrge tong to the acre 
were applied. This practice has gone quite out 
of use. Lying for nineteen years jn the soil, @ © 
large proportion was soon conyerted into- the 
mild or carbonate form, apd again by teans of’ 
natural drainage the formatiou of a pan was, 
under this system, almost a certainty. As the 
result of many experiments, it has been found ° 
much more profitable to apply small quantities 
of lime at frequent interyals, and, where’ the 
five-course rotation of crops is in vogue, it is 
¢ msidered best practice to put on‘from 3 to 8 
ewts every five years, according to the condition 
of the soil. But as a first dressing on newly 
broken land, rich in organic matter and plant 
food, much larger quantities may -be applied, 
Putting it on in this way it becomes part of the 
systematic manuring of the farm and can be 
easily djstributed by an ordinary manure drill, 
It may be mentioned that when sown with a 
drill a piece of sacking should be put on behind 
the drill and on the sides, to prevent the lime 
blowing about. This sucking should come quite 
down to the ground behind, thus preventin 
much of the discomfort otherwise caused by the 
blowing about of the fine lime, 4 
Wuen to Appty Live.—In-countries where 
root crops are grown the farmer has a choice in... 
the application of ‘his lime.. Usually it is put 
on with the root crop, after the land has been 
cleaned, just previous to ridging ‘or even on the. 
top of the ridges, although the latter method is 
not a commendable one. Following roots comes 
either barley or oat, on what is called “clecn 
land,” and this is a splendid time in a rotation 
at which tolme, When the Jand is ploughed 
ready for sowing in the early spring the limedg: 
it vas a popular custom to slake lime, converting 
SATISEY 
ip into the hydrate fon, itis pot now considered 
Ae Rundle ; St., is delaide, good practice in applying lime to the soil to do 
: ». AND AT... so, ‘Lhe lumps, after burping, are crushed to a 
fine powder 1n a mill, and sown by a drill just 
MELBCURNE an _ SYDNEY. in the gun.e way we suw supeiphosphate or 
wanes PES EAS La! ; Mod iad | eoBe'y) 
applied and the land afterwards cult.vated sougels, 
to mix well with the svil presjous to sowing ther») 
grain If puton in the nislaked form the farmeépeiy: 
finds it necessary, of course, to sow his lime audoos, 
mix it well with the sui) some time before seed-si% 
ing, so that the staking RIE puny be farly >> 
