TRAINING. 
to it, a stake is necessary, to prevent wind-wav- 
ing. Very often, the permanent rails are not 
put up till the trees have been two or three 
years trained on temporary stakes. Simple ash- 
poles firmly stuck in the ground, and either 
charred or smeared with tar at the bottom, to 
retard rotting, form a very efficient substitute 
for a rail; for it is to be observed, that during 
summer, when the leaves are expanded, they 
equally hide the roughest poles, or the most 
finished rail. Mr. Nicol, however, recommends 
sinking hewn stones in the earth, and fixing a 
wooden rail in them; and a writer in the Scot- 
tish Horticultural Memoirs, vol. i., has described 
a kind of cast-iron espalier rail, which of course 
must be highly durable, and, what is remarkable, 
is cheaper at the first than a wooden one. Some 
gardeners shorten the head of the tree in the 
usual way ; others preserve the original branches 
at full length, never cutting a branch unless 
where there is a real deficiency of wood for fill- 
ing the rail. The pruning is chiefly done by 
disbudding in the summer season. The distance 
at which the branches are laid in depends on the 
size of the fruit and leaves; when these are 
large, seven or eight inches are required ; when 
small, four or five may be sufficient. See the ar- 
ticle EsPALIER. 
Dwarf Standards.—Dwarf trees were formerly 
much in vogue; and, strange as it may appear, 
the prospect of fruit was generally sacrificed to a 
fine shape. It was thought necessary that the 
lower branches should spread horizontally near 
the ground, and should decrease in width up- 
wards, so that the tree should have a conical 
form. Now, it is well known that the fruit-buds 
of pears and apples in general, and of many sorts 
of plums and cherries, are produced at the end 
of the former year’s shoots, which therefore 
should remain at full length; yet these were 
necessarily shortened, in order to preserve the 
desired shape, and it may easily be conceived 
that trees so dressed could not prove fruitful. 
For these reasons, the training to espalier-rails 
has generally been preferred. A few dwarf trees, 
however, prove ornamental, and they sometimes 
afford a great deal of fruit. The kinds of dwarf 
fruit-trees now in request are chiefly pears and 
apples. The pears must be of the summer and 
autumn sorts, the later fruits requiring a wall in 
our climate. Dwarf pears are chiefly budded on 
quince stocks. The trees are planted out, at two 
or three years old, where they are to remain, and 
they are placed from 20 to 25 feet asunder. A 
few stakes are driven into the ground, and, by 
means of tying down, the lower branches may 
soon be made to acquire a horizontal direction. 
No branches must cross each other, and no cen- 
tral upright shoots are permitted. The only 
other particular to be attended to is, when the 
trees are to be trained in a concave form, that, 
in shortening the shoots, the uppermost eye or 
bud is to be left outwards, as in this way the 
TRANSPLANTING. 
479 
hollowness in the middle of the tree is better 
preserved. Sometimes the branches are trained 
round a hoop, which is supported by three or 
four small poles. Dwarf standard apple-trees on 
paradise stocks may be planted very closely, as 
they occupy but little room: they do not require 
more than 10 or 15 feet; on crab stocks they 
need at least 25. Plums.are now seldom planted 
as dwarf standards; cherries more frequently ; 
apricots scarcely ever. 
TRAMMEL. An artificial hindrance to the 
free motion of an animal’s limbs,—particularly 
an implement of leather or of ropes, fitted to a 
horse’s legs to restrain his natural paces, and to 
aid the purposes of the manege. 
TRANSPLANTING. The removal of a living 
plant from one site to another. This must be 
done without any material damage to the roots ; 
else the plant will suffer in health, or even may 
die. Generally speaking, there is no difficulty in 
removing plants when young; and if they were 
removed every season, they would hardly be the 
worse for it. When, however, we attempt to 
remove trees, plants, or shrubs, that have been 
many years undisturbed, the greatest care must 
be used to prevent injury from the loss of fibres, 
which, with all our attention, will be broken. 
Two facts may be relied upon in the considera- 
tion of this subject,—first, the growth of a tree 
is always in proportion to the under-growth of 
its roots, and the head maintained grows as large 
as the roots will allow it; and second, any dam- 
age the roots sustain checks the growth of the 
tree or plant. From these two facts all the art 
of removing trees and plants should be learned ; 
and upon these two facts all the art is founded. 
In transplanting seedlings of almost any kind, 
there is no difficulty, because the roots being 
easily removed whole, the plants suffer nothing. 
In seedlings of all kinds, there is.a strong dispo- 
sition to make new roots; and, if the fibres are 
damaged, but little mischief accrues. It is when 
plants have stood some time, and their roots have 
made considerable progress, that the difficulty of 
removal begins to arise. Here, then, we have 
two particular duties to perform; the first is, by 
carefully removing the earth to the very end of 
the root, to get the plant up with as little dam- 
age as possible; and the second is to curtail the 
head sufficiently to allow for the damaged powers 
of the root. In taking up nursery plants, where 
despatch governs every thing, the roots lose con- 
siderably, and the ends of all the main spreading 
portions are invariably chopped off with the 
spade. In this case two other operations be- 
come necessary, — first, to cut smooth all the 
bruised ends, and, second, to prune off a consi- 
derable portion of the branches, in order to di- 
minish the evaporation and consumption of 
moisture. Some trees, indeed, are so much in- 
clined to grow and strike root, that they would 
live almost if the roots were chopped off; but 
others are extremely impatient of damage at the 
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