BOTANICAL GARDENS. 
a map; hence such names as polygraphus, micro- 
graphus, and typographus have been fancifully 
conferred on certain of the species.” Brief notices 
of the more remarkable or mischievous kinds will 
be found under the heads Tomicus, Scotyruvs, 
Hytureus, and Hyresinus. 
BOTANICAL GARDENS. Establishments in 
which plants from all climates, and all parts of 
the world, are cultivated in the open air, in green- 
houses and hothouses. The object of such an es- 
tablishment is partly information and the im- 
provement of science, partly pleasure and luxury. 
Theophrastus seems to have instituted the first 
botanical garden. He bequeathed it to his scho- 
lars. Attalus Philometor, king of Pergamus, and 
Mithridates EKupator of Pontus, vied with each 
other in the establishment of gardens, where they 
cultivated poisons and antidotes. Pliny men- 
tions a botanical garden which was laid out in 
Italy by Antonius Castor, son-in-law of king De- 
jotarus. In the middle ages, Charlemagne ex- 
| erted a favourable influence, by establishing gar- 
dens near the imperial palaces and castles, speci- 
fying even the single shrubs which were to be 
planted. In the beginning of the 14th century, 
Matthzeus Sylvaticus, at Salerno, founded the 
first botanical garden, properly so called. The 
republic of Venice, soon afterwards, in 1333, in- 
stituted a public medical garden, and had the 
plants painted by Amadei. The paintings are 
still preserved After the time of the revival of 
learning, the first botanical gardens, which con- 
tained, however, for the greater part, merely me- 
dicinal plants, were laid out in Italy. Duke 
Alfonso of Este was the founder of an excellent 
institution of this kind in Ferrara; then followed 
the gardens in Padua, Pisa, and Pavia. Mont- 
pellier, in France, first imitated his example. 
The academical garden in Leyden was instituted 
in 1577; that of Paris, in 1633; and about the 
same time the first botanical gardens in Germany 
and England were founded. At present, the 
largest and most renowned in Germany are the 
imperial Austrian, at Schonbrunn, under the in- 
spection of Jacquin; the royal Prussian, near 
Berlin, under Link and Otto; that of Weimar, in 
Belvidere ; that of the grand duke of Baden, at 
Schwetzingen ; and the royal Hanoverian, in 
Herrnhausen. In Great Britain, the royal gar- 
den at Kew, and the Chelsea garden, founded for 
the London apothecaries, are the most celebrated 
scientific institutions, to say nothing of the ex- 
| tensive gardens where plants are raised for sale. 
In France, the royal garden in Paris is the prin- 
cipal. Formerly, that of Malmaison, founded by 
the empress J osephine, was the most famous. In 
Italy, the garden of the university at Turin, is, 
perhaps, the best ; in Spain, the royal garden at 
Madrid ; in Denmark, the garden of the univer- 
sity at Copenhagen. In Russia, the excellent 
institution of the count Alexis Rasumowsky, at 
Corinka, near Moscow, deserves to be placed by 
the side of the most celebrated establishments. 
BOTANY. 491 
The principal botanical gardens in the United 
States are in New York and Philadelphia. In 
Asia, the garden of the Hast India Company at 
Calcutta is the most important.—At present, 
almost all universities and learned academies, as 
well as many rich private proprietors, have bo- 
tanical gardens. 
BOTANY. The science of plants may be di- 
vided into two parts, one of which describes their 
external appearance,’ and is sometimes called 
Phytography ; the other treats of their internal 
structure and organic action, and may be termed 
Philosophical botany or Phytonomy. The former 
requires a perfect knowledge of terminology,— 
the latter a thorough knowledge of the plants 
themselves,—with a view to a systematic classi- 
fication of them according to fixed principles. 
The necessity of such a classification must have 
been felt as soon as the number of known plants 
became great, and their relations and analogies 
obvious. At the time of the revival of letters, 
hardly 1,500 plants were known from the descrip- 
tions of the ancients: at present, at a moderate 
estimation, more than 70,000 have been described. 
It is obviously impossible to introduce order into 
this infinite chaos, or to acquire any distinct 
knowledge, without the aid of general principles. 
Even in the 16th and 17th centuries, the found- 
ers of botanical science perceived that in plants, 
as well as in all other natural bodies, the essen- 
tial and necessary parts must be distinguished 
from the accidental, and that a scientific classifi- 
cation must be founded on the former alone. 
Now it was obvious that the production of fruit 
and seed is the ultimate object of vegetation ; 
and, accordingly, in the first attempts at classi- 
fication, the relations and component parts of the 
seed and of the fruit were made the foundation 
of the arrangement. This arrangement was con- 
firmed by an observation of the uniformity of 
nature in the formation of those parts in plants | 
of similar kinds. But it was found, also, that 
uniformity in these formations prevailed in too 
great a number of plants to allow them alone to 
be made the distinguishing characteristics. It 
became, therefore, necessary to have recourse to | 
other parts. The flower was first chosen, as it | 
presents a great variety of forms, and at the same | 
time a uniformity of structure. But the limits | 
to this uniformity, and the absence of flowers in | 
innumerable plants, with the consideration that | 
they are not essential, suggested to the immortal 
founder of modern scientific botany the idea that 
the sexual parts are most intimately related to | 
the growth of the fruit, and that they are, there- 
fore, of the greatest importance, and furnish bet- 
ter grounds of classification than the flower. A 
general principle was thus established, fertile in 
consequences, excellently adapted to facilitate 
the diffusion and extend the sphere of the science. 
The Linnean system was founded exclusively 
on the relations of the sexual parts. Linneus || 
divided all known plants into two general divi- | 
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