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498 BOTANY. 
commemorative names are merely given in compli- 
ment to a botanist unconnected with the discovery 
or history of the plant, the adjective form is prefer- 
red; as Carex Torreyana, C. Hookeriana, &c.: but 
this rule is not universally followed. Specific names 
are sometimes substantive; as Ranunculus Flammula, 
Hypericum Sarothra, Linaria Cymbalaria, &e.: when 
they do not necessarily accord with the genus in 
gender. These, as well as all specific names derived 
from those of persons or countries, should always be 
written with a capital initial letter. 
History oF THE Scrrnce.—Of the two general 
divisions of botany, the physiological or philoso- 
phical is the elder. ‘ Before the Greek philoso- 
phers attempted to distinguish classes and species 
of plants, they examined the laws of vegetable 
life, the difference of plants from animals, and, as 
far as it could be done with the naked eye, their 
structure. Theophrastus of Eresus is the creator 
of philosophical botany, which he treated on a 
great and original plan. From the writings of 
the Alexandrians, and from original observations, 
Dioscorides of Anazarba, in the first century of 
the Christian era, compiled a work, which con- 
tains imperfect descriptions of about 1,200 plants, 
the medical qualities of which were more attend- 
ed'to by the author than the description of their 
characteristics or their philosophical classifica- 
tion. This work continued, for 15 centuries, the 
only source of botanical knowledge. The Persian 
and Arabian physicians added about 200 plants, 
which were unknown to the Greeks, and, conse- 
quently the number of known plants, at the time 
of the revival of letters, was about 1,400. Ger- 
many has the merit of having founded historical 
botany. The obvious imperfections of Dioscori- 
des, when the plants of Germany came to be in- 
vestigated, and the extravagances into which 
those persons fell who attempted to apply his 
descriptions to German plants, impelled Hierony- 
mus of Brunswick, Otho Braunfelsius, Leon. Fuch- 
-sius, Hieron. Tragus and Conrad Gesner, to ex- 
amine the vegetable productions of their country, 
independently of Dioscorides, and to represent 
them in wood-cuts. Gesner first started the idea 
that the parts of fructification were the most 
essential, and that plants must be classified with 
reference to them. They were followed, in the 
16th century, by the Italians, Peter Matthiolus, 
Andr. Czesalpinus, Prosp. Alpinus and Fab. Oo- 
lumna; the Belgians, Dodonzus, Clusius, and 
Lobelius. Among the botanists of this period, 
who extended the science by their labours in 
collecting specimens, are the French Dalechamp, 
the English Gerard, the German Joach. Camera- 
rius, Tabernemontanus and John Bauhin, whose 
brother Gaspard not only increased the number 
of known plants by numerous discoveries, but 
endeavoured to reform the nomenclature, which 
had become much confused by the multiplication 
of names of the same plant. These are the 
fathers of botany, whose standard works still 
reward examination. By the exertions of these 
men, the number of known plants, at the begin- 
ning of the 17th century, amounted to 5,500. 
BOTHY. 
The necessity of classification increased with the 
quantity of materials. Lobelius and John Bau- 
hin adopted the natural division of trees, grasses, 
&c., without reference to any general principle. 
Andreas Czesalpinus, by the advice of Conrad 
Gesner, fixed upon the fruit and the seed as the 
foundation of a classification, which is still re- 
tained by many of his followers, who are called 
fructists. In the 17th century, new methods 
were introduced by Robert Morison and John 
Ray; the latter of whom attended to the struc- 
ture of the corolla and its parts, while Rivinus 
considered only the regularity or irregularity of 
its shape, and Tournefort its resemblance to other 
objects. The number of known plants was in- 
creased by Morison, Plukenet, Barrelier, Boccone, 
van Rheede, Petiver, and Plumier. In the 17th 
century, the foundation of botanical anatomy was 
laid by Grew and Malpighi; botanical chemistry 
was founded by Homberg, Dodart, and Mariotte; 
and the difference of sex was discovered by Grew, 
Morland, and Rud. Jak. Camerarius. This dis- 
covery Micheli attempted to extend even to the 
lower degrees of organization, moss, lichens, and 
sponges. ‘l'o such predecessors, and to the great 
collectors of herbariums, Rumphius, Parkinson, 
Sloane, Flacourt, Sommelyn, Buxbaum, Ammann 
and Feuillée, the immortal Linnzus was indebted 
in part for the idea on which his system was 
founded, and for his great stores of botanical 
knowledge. When the first edition of his‘ Species 
Plantarum’ was published, he was acquainted 
with 7,300 species; in the second edition, with 
8,800. If we consider that a moderate herbarium 
now contains from 11,000 to 12,000 species, we 
must be astonished at the increase in the num- 
ber of known plants in 60 years. The two sexes 
of Linnzeus were afterwards extended, by Dille- 
nius, Schmidel, and Hedwig, to the imperfect 
vegetables. This system was opposed by Adan- 
son, Alston, and Haller; it was extended still 
farther by Schreber, Scopoli, Crantz, and Jacquin. 
In the 18th century, numerous discoveries in the 
vegetable world were made by John Burmann, 
J. G. Gmelin, Pallas, Forskall, Forster, Hassel- 
quist, Browne, Jacquin, Aublet, Sommerson, 
Stahl, Swartz, and Aiton. Vegetable physiology 
was enlarged and enriched with new discoveries 
by Bonnet, Duhamel, Hill, Koelreuter, and Sen- 
ebier, and thus botany approached its present 
degree of improvement. 
BOTHY. The apartment in a farmery, in- 
habited by unmarried ploughmen. It serves at 
once as kitchen, eating-room, and sleeping-room ; 
and, both in its furniture and its character, pos- 
sesses more resemblance to a barrack-room than 
to a proper domicile of farm-servants. Its in- 
mates are usually all the unmarried ploughmen 
of the farm; every two of them have a bed and 
bed-clothes in the apartment; and the whole 
body cook for themselves, and live together al- 
most as if they formed a bachelor establishment 
on an island inaccessible to the rest of their spe- 
