512 
JOURNAL  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
June  14,  1900. 
mulcliing. 
The  process  of  applying  various  substances  as  a  covering  for  soil 
above  the  roots  of  trees  and  plants,  to  prevent  evaporation,  and  .'O 
preserve  uniform  heat  and  moisture,  is  a  natural  one.  In  Nature 
the  gradual  change  that  overtakes  everything  has  one  primary 
object — i.e ,  to  make  dust  of  all  things.  All  over  the  surface  of  the 
land  evidence  exists  of  a  natural  mulching  process — the  cease'ess 
decay  or  reduction  of  parts  called  “weathering.”  The  effect  of  this, 
combined  with  the  growth  and  decay  of  vegetation,  is  to  promote  the 
formation  of  soil  and  subsoil.  Taking  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
there  exists  a  crust  of  vegetation.  First  we  encounter  a  dark  band 
of  fine  particles  of  earth  crowded  with  rootlets  and  forming  the  true 
soil — the  layer  of  most  complete  decay.  Then  on  digging  lurther  we 
reach  a  broken-up  layer,  through  which  strong  roots  of  the  vegetation 
descend,  and  this  is  termel  the  subsoil.  Excavating  still  lower  rock 
is  reached,  which,  shattered  and  torn  or  worn  at  the  top,  shows  the 
earlier  stages  of  disintegration.  Worms,  insects,  and  larger  animals 
that  die  upon  the  surface  add  their  mouldering  remains  to  the  upper¬ 
most  deposit,  and  together  with  the  decaying  vegetation  supply  mineral 
as  well  as  organic  matter,  on  which  the  fertility  of  the  soil  so  much 
depends.  These  also  furnish  the  organic  acids,  which,  absorbed  by 
percolating  rain  water,  help  to  decompose  rocks. 
The  carpet  of  verdure,  the  fine  mould,  and  the  rougher  material 
underneath,  called  respectively  turf,  soil,  and  subsoil,  reduce  weathering 
or-decay,  yet  not  wholly,  for  if  the  process  ceased  plants  growing  on 
the  surface  would  dwindle  and  die.  Impoverishment  of  the  soil 
undoubtedly  takes  place  by  successive  generations  of  the  same  plant, 
but  the  natural  vegetation  is  for  the  most  part  mixed,  and  the  process 
of  weathering  not  entirely  arrested,  as  successive  generations  of  plants 
are  able  to  draw  nutriment  from  the  soil.  In  Nature  forests  may  decay 
and  be  replaced  by  shrub  and  grass,  while  vast  tracts  are  practically 
barren  through  accumulations  of  peat  precluding  disintegration  of  the 
underlying  strata.  The  causes,  however,  are  mechanical,  for  draining 
transforms  the  moor  as  well  as  the  morass  from  sterility  to  fertility. 
The  downs  bear  their  verdure  undiminished  because  the  weathering 
process  continues,  for  though  the  grassy  turf  protects  the  surface,  the 
underlying  rock  gradually  decays  supplying  new  food  indefinitely. 
Other  agents  besides  quiet  atmospheric  disintegration  and  the 
accumulation  of  vegetable  and  animal  debris  mulch  the  surface  of  the 
earth  with  fine  mould.  The  countless  ground  insects,  and  the  still 
finer  particles  of  mould  swallowed  and  conveyed  to  the  surface  by  the 
common  earthworm,  sometimes,  according  to  Darwin,  as  much  as 
10  tons  per  annum  over  an  acre  of  ground  in  some  places,  represent 
natural  mulching,  while  the  holes  mean  atmospheric  air  and  rain 
water  let  into  the  soil  for  the  oxidising  and  dissolving  the  rocks.  All 
forms  of  mulching  are  conservative  of  the  soil’s  moisture  and  protective 
of  the  soil’s  warmth.  Wet  land  is  proverbially  cold,  whether  in  a  dark 
coat  (peat)  or  a  grey  (chalk).  Sand  possesses  a  minimum  of  water- 
absorbing  and  retaining  power,  that  of  clay  being  five  times,  and 
humus  or  peat  six  times  greater.  It  follows  that  fine  sand  will  hold 
more  water  than  coarse,  and  the  finer  the  soil,  therefore,  the  smaller 
the  spaces  between  the  particles  the  more  water  will  be  held,  the 
drainage  being  efficient.  It  is  also  noteworthy,  that  if  gravel  allows 
water  to  percolate  more  freely  through  it  than  coarse  sand,  the  under¬ 
ground  water  or  soil  moisture  will  rise  considerably  less  in  the  gravel 
than  in  the  coarse  sand  when  the  surface  becomes  dry.  In  passing  to 
finely  divided  soils  clay  has  the  highest  suction  for  soil  moisture,  but 
it  bakes  in  droughty  weather,  cracks,  and  lets  out  the  soil  moisture 
into  the  air.  Chalky  land  yields,  perhaps,  more  underground  water 
to  the  surface  soil  than  any  other,  but  the  retention  is  not  so  great  as 
that  of  the  finer  divided  vegetable  mould. 
Now  one  of  the  chief  objects  of  good  cultivation  is  to  cut  off  the 
supply  of  underground  moisture  so  as  to  prevent  its  evaporation  into 
the  atmosphere.  Nature  asssists  this  by  surfacing  the  earth  with  fine 
mould,  and  by  the  debris  of  vegetation.  The  cultivator  digs  and 
trenches  the  ground,  well  knowing  that  the  finer  and  deeper  the  soil  the 
better  will  be  the  crops.  Further,  the  surface  is  kept  loose  by  hoeing, 
and  thus  lets  in  the  air  and  rain,  and  also  conserves  the  warmth  and 
moisture  of  the  soil,  the  fine  tilth  causing  the  rising  moisture  to  spread 
through  the  soil  beneath  the  surface  instead  of  escaping  into  the  air 
without  passing  through  the  plants.  Thus  the  soil  moisture  and  food 
elements  are  got  into  the  crops  and  profit  accordingly  accrues. 
A  rough,  cracked  surface,  on  the  other  hand,  allows  the  under¬ 
ground  water  to  esc  ipe  freely  into  the  open  air,  and  the  crops  are  dis¬ 
tressed  for  lack  of  moisture.  In  certain  soil  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  keep  a  loose  surface,  and  it  is  not  always  feasible  to  procure  material 
to  prevent  its  running  together  wdh  rain,  and  in  dry  periods  being 
preserved  in  almost  every  direction.  Still  this  is  the  best  conservative 
of  the  soil  moisture,  and  no  pains  should  be  spired  on  a  stiff  soil  to 
secure  and  maintain  a  fine  surface.  The  fact  of  the  underlying  stratum 
cracking  is  not  then  so  material,  as  the  surface  soil  will  cut  off  the 
underground  water,  so  that  it  will  be  at  the  service  of  the  crop. 
We  thus  arrive  at  two  points  in  relation  to  the  conservation  of  s  )il 
moisture.  One,  the  fine  soil  resulting  from  atmospheric  disintegration 
of  rocks,  which,  as  in  cultivation,  is  in  the  condition  best  calculated 
to  absorb  the  sun’s  heat,  and  allow  the  rain  and  atmospheric  air  to 
enter  the  ground.  This  corresponds  to  the  good  tilth  of  cultivation. 
It  is,  however,  the  nature  of  soils  to  become  compact,  which  favours 
capillary  attraction,  so  that  a  distinction  must  be  made  between 
natural  and  cultivated  soils.  In  the  former  the  surface  working  is 
effected  by  the  action  of  burrowing  animals,  while  in  the  latter  ihe 
process  of  hoeing  or  other  surlace  cultivation  operates  towards  the 
same  end.  The  other  point  is  that  of  the  dead  natural  vegetation 
acting  as  a  mulch.  The  parts  forming  the  debris  are  the  remains 
of  recent  vegetation  disposed  all  ways,  but  mostly  parallel  to  the 
earth’s  surface,  and  they  protect  the  soil  from  cold  in  winter  and 
from  heat  in  summer.  Of  course  the  recent  vegetation  passes  by 
degrees  into  the  state  of  complete  decay,  and  in  its  various  stages 
represents  the  organic  matter  of  the  soil  called  humus.  It  is  known 
by  its  dark  colour,  and  this  means  heat-absorbing  power;  while  in  the 
opposite  direction  it  implies  cold,  for  it  {absorbs  water  and  keeps  the 
soil  damp.  Ot  its  other  properties  nothing  need  n)w  be  said, 
suffice  that  the  points  appertaining  to  mulching  be  clearly  defined, 
namely,  the  use  of  littery  material  in  winter  as  a  protection  against 
cold,  and  its  employment  in  summer  as  a  preservative  from  heat  or 
drought.  G.  Abjjey.  concluded.) 
- - - 
Carnations  in  Pots. 
The  excellence  of  Carnations,  either  when  grown  as  specimens  for 
adorning  the  greenhouse  or  conservatory  or  for  the  production  of 
blooms  for  cutting,  is  beyond  question.  They  a'e  never  unsightly 
except  when  mismanaged.  As  cut  flowers  they  are  invaluable,  and 
for  massiveness  of  form  and  grateful  perfume  are  unsurpassed.  I  have 
Carnations  in  flower  more  or  less  all  the  year  round  with  very  little 
trouble,  and  for  the  benefit  of  your  readers  whom  it  may  interest  I 
give  an  outline  of  the  system  which  has  been  very  successfully 
adopted  for  many  years. 
In  September  the  desired  number  of  cuttings  are  taken,  choosing 
those  that  are  vigorous  ;  then  the  requisite  number  of  5-iuch  pots  are 
prepared  to  receive  them  by  being  well  drained.  On  the  potsherds  a 
layer  of  decomposed  manure  is  placed,  and  then  the  pots  are  filled 
three  parts  full  with  a  compost  of  loam  and  loaf  soil  and  a  dash  of 
sand,  the  remaining  space  being  filled  with  pure  sand.  The  cuttings 
are  inserted  rather  thickly,  and  having  dipped  the  pots  in  a  pail  of 
water  to  insure  saturation  they  are  placed  near  the  glass  in  the  front 
of  a  cold  pit,  where  they  remain  ail  the  winter,  and  receive  no  more 
attention  except  a  judicious  watering  occasionally.  The  following 
March  the  cuttings,  being  well  rooted,  are  potted  singly  in  3-inch 
pots,  and  replaced  in  their  old  quarters  ;  here  they  are  kept  moderately 
close  for  about  a  week,  and  receive  no  water  except  a  spriukiiug 
with  the  syringe  two  or  three  times  a  day.  This  renders  shading 
unnecessary,  and  is,  I  think,  preferable. 
When  rooting  freely  in  the  fresh  soil  the  plants  are  watered 
thoroughly  as  they  require  it,  and  the  leading  shoot.s  are  pinched  off  in 
order  that  three  or  four  side  growths  may  start  near  the  base  of  each 
of  th^  plants.  In  about  two  months’  time  they  will  be  reidy  to  shift 
into  6  or  7-inch  pots  according  to  their  size.  At  this  and  all  successive 
puttings  it  is  well  to  use  the  soil  in  a  rough  lumpy  state.  The  loam  we 
employ  is  rather  light  and  poor  when  we  get  it,  but  is  brought  into 
splendid  condition  by  being  stacked  one  year  prior  tu  being  used. 
Layers  of  turf  and  stable  manure  are  built  in  alternately,  with  a 
sprinkling  of  bonemeal,  and  the  whole  is  thorougnly  soaked  with 
liquid  manure  as  the  operation  proceeds.  After  the  8-ioch  shilt  the 
plants  are  grown  in  a  frame,  with  slates  below  the  pots  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  worms,  and  watered  freely,  the  growth  being  equalised  by 
pinching.  The  sashes  are  taken  off  altogether  on  fine  nights,  so  that 
the  plants  may  be  refreshed  with  dew. 
In  September,  or  as  soon  as  the  roots  have  thorough  possession  of 
the  soil,  the  plants  are  shifted  into  10  or  12-ioch  pots,  and  in  these 
they  commence  to  flower  the  following  spring.  When  the  plants 
become  rootbouud  we  supply  them  with  weak  liquid  manure  made  of 
sheep  droppings,  a  little  guino,  and  soot.  Under  this  treatment  they 
continue  to  flower  for  months,  producing  that  fine  dark  foliage  which 
is  so  characteristic  of  healthful  vigour.  Those  required  for  later 
flowering  are  pinched  back,  while  if  very  large  specimens  are  wanted 
they  are  potted  in  18  or  20-inch  pots.  For  large  pots  mix  a  quantity 
of  broken  crocks  with  the  soil  to  keep  it  sweet,  for  if  it  becomes  sour 
the  plants  sicken  and  die.  Before  shifting  them,  too,  they  are  well 
watered,  and  do  not  require  any  more  until  they  have  rooted  in  the 
fresh  soil ;  but  flagging  is  prevented  by  the  frequent  use  of  the 
syringe.  That  system  is,  I  consider,  essential  to  the  successful 
repotting  of  large  plants.  Now  that  the  plants  are  large  enough,  it  is 
