March  25,  1897. 
JOURNAL  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
247 
grave  doubts  about  the  correctness  of  the  word  as  applied  to  this 
flower.  One  can  only  agree  with  him  in  this,  as  the  colour 
is  in  no  sense  described  by  the  word  yellow.  A  dingy  buff  white, 
if  such  can  be  conceived,  may  perhaps  express  it  better  ;  and  it  will 
require  some  further  progress  still  before  we  attain  what  some 
appear  to  desire — a  true  yellow  sweet  Yiolet. 
The  other  box  contained  a  charming  set  of  cut  blooms  of 
seedling  Hellebores  or  Lenten  Roses,  made  all  the  more  valuable 
for  comparison  by  being  accompanied  by  blooms  of  the  parent 
flowers.  They  came  from  Mr.  Joseph  Mallender,  gardener  to 
Miss  Mellish,  Hodsock  Priory,  Worksop.  Mr.  Mallender  is  not 
only  an  enthusiastic,  but  successful  seedling  raiser,  and  the  flowers 
he  so  kindly  sent  are  very  beautiful  indeed.  The  pollen  parent 
was  a  rather  small  bright  purple  Hellebore,  and  the  seed-bearer  a 
nice  white  one  ;  and  the  seedlings  sent  exhibit  the  influence  of 
both.  The  flowers  are  larger  and  better  formed,  and  range  in 
colour  from  white,  through  some  charming  shades  of  pale  purple 
or  pink  to  deep  purple.  They  are  before  me  as  I  write,  and  their 
varied  colours  and  fresh  foliage  of  pale  to  deep  green  induce  one  to 
pause  now  and  again  to  have  another  look.  Although  posted  on 
the  8th  of  March,  and  not  arriving  until  the  morning  of  the  10th, 
they  were  as  fresh  as  when  cut.  This  is  probably  due  to  Mr. 
Mallender’s  precaution  in  giving  them  “a  cold  bath  for  three  hours 
before  packing  them  ;  ”  and  others  who  have  to  pack  cut  blooms 
of  the  Hellebores,  which  are  notoriously  bad  keepers  when  cut, 
may  find  this  precaution  a  valuable  one. — S.  Arnott. 
CHEMISTRY  IN  THE  GARDEN. 
( Continued  from  page  207.) 
We  see  by  what  has  been  said  about  the  formation  of  soils  how 
by  the  action  of  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  oxygen  the  surface  of 
the  rocks  has  been  pulverised  and  worn  down  into  soil.  We  have 
also  seen  how  the  quartz  in  granite  and  the  silica  in  minerals  like 
augite  form  sand,  and  how  by  the  decomposition  of  the  other 
minerals  the  silicates  of  alumina  combine  with  water  and  form  clay. 
The  pieces  of  rock  broken  off  the  mass  by  the  action  of  frost 
would  intermingle  with  the  clay  and  sand  and  give  to  soil  thus 
formed  certain  properties.  If  the  broken  pieces  were  large  they 
would  form  stones,  if  very  small  they  would  have  the  same  pro¬ 
perties  as  clay,  while  those  of  an  intermediate  form  would  be  more 
like  sand.  By  the  decay  of  the  lichens,  mosses,  and  weeds  a  certain 
amount  of  decaying  vegetable  matter  would  be  produced,  which 
together  with  the  substance  formed  by  the  decay  of  worms  and 
other  kinds  of  animal  life,  would  form  the  material  known  as 
humus. 
The  Composition  of  Soils. 
Soils  are,  therefore,  made  up  of  two  principal  parts,  (1)  the 
mineral  or  inorganic,  which  consists  of  clay,  sand,  mineral 
fragments  (stones),  and  sometimes  carbonate  of  lime  ;  and  (2)  the 
organic,  which  is  the  portion  derived  from  the  decay  of  vegetable 
and  animal  matter. 
Pure  clay  is  a  substance  known  as  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina  ; 
or  in  other  words  it  i*  composed  of  water,  silica,  and  alumina 
chemically  united.  Pure  clay  would  be  of  no  value  to  plants, 
because  it  does  not  contain  any  constituent  of  use  to  them  as  food . 
The  clays,  and  clayey  soils  in  our  gardens  are  not  pure,  but  consist 
of  a  mixture  of  pure  clay,  silicates  of  alumina,  tiny  particles  of 
rock,  sand,  organic  matter,  and  compounds  containing  nitrogen, 
potash,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  phosphoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid, 
chlorine,  and  iron.  Clay  was  first  of  all  formed  by  the  disintegra¬ 
tion  of  the  primary  rocks,  the  particles  of  which  settled  down  in 
the  ocean  to  form  the  sedimentary  rocks — slate  and  shale.  Clayey 
soils  of  the  garden  may  therefore  be  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
various  disintegrating  agents,  either  from  the  primary,  slatey,  or 
shale  rocks. 
Pure  sand  is  composed  of  two  elements — viz.,  silicon  and 
oxygen.  This  substance  is,  therefore,  of  no  value  to  plants  as 
food.  Sandy  soils  always  contain  some  clay,  organic  matter, 
mineral  fragments,  and  compounds  containing  all  the  ingredients 
necessary  for  plant  life.  There  is  present,  sometimes,  in  sand  & 
large  quantity  of  fragments  of  the  mineral  mica,  when  it  is  called 
a  micaceous  sand.  Other  sands  contain  large  quantities  of  the 
ground  shells  of  fish,  and  these  would  be  known  as  calcareous 
sands.  The  mineral  fragments  (stones)  are  portions  of  rock 
that  have  been  broken  off  the  ma3s  by  the  action  of  frost.  They 
are  generally  similar  in  composition  to  the  rock  from  which  they 
were  produced. 
Carbonate  of  lime  is  never  very  abundant,  unless  the  soil  has 
been  formed  from  chalk  or  limestone  rocks.  Humus  is  an  organic 
substance,  made  up  chiefly  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  It 
also  contains  a  moderate  amount  of  organic  nitrogen,  and  smaller 
quantities  of  the  other  elements,  which  are  essential  for  the  growth 
of  plants. 
We  often  hear  the  question  asked,  Is  it  possible  for  gardeners 
to  analyse  their  soils  ?  To  this  question  we  must  answer  No,  except 
the  gardener  possesses  a  knowledge  of  analytical  chemistry.  He 
can  with  ease,  however,  make  a  mechanical  analysis  of  his  soil,  and 
by  this  means  will  be  able  to  determine  how  much  sand,  clay, 
stones,  and  humus  his  soil  contains.  Before  dealing,  therefore, 
with  the  elements  of  plant  food  in  soils,  we  will  give  a  brief 
description  of  the  way  a  mechanical  analysis  can  be  carried  out. 
Mechanical  Analysis  of  Soils. 
Select  an  average  sample  of  soil,  and  after  breaking  it  up  as  fine 
as  possible,  spread  it  out  to  dry.  A*  soon  as  it  is  dry  mix  well 
together,  so  as  to  get  an  even  sample,  and  then  weigh  from  the 
heap  25  ozs.  The  25  oz*.  of  soil  should  then  be  passed  through  a 
very  fine  sieve,  so  as  to  remove  all  the  stones.  If  there  be  any  soil 
adhering  to  the  stones  it  must  be  carefully  removed,  and  any  pieces 
of  root  found  remaining  in  the  sieve  must  be  returned  to  the 
sifted  heap.  When  the  stones  have  been  taken  away,  the  soil  should 
be  shaken  up  with  rain  water.  After  agitating  the  water  and  soil 
vigorously  for  a  time,  allow  the  vessel  to  remain  stationary  for  a  few 
minutes  to  permit  the  sand  to  settle,  and  then  pour  off  the  muddy 
water.  By  repeating  this  process  several  times,  the  operator  will 
ultimately  have  all  the  mud  or  clay  in  one  lot  of  water,  and  the 
sand  in  another.  Now  let  the  two  vessels  stand  until  the  clay 
and  sand  have  settled,  then  carefully  pour  off  as  much  of  the 
water  as  possible.  The  two  vessels  should  next  be  placed  in  a 
moderately  hot  oven  to  allow  the  sand  and  clay  to  get  perfectly 
dry,  when  they,  as  well  as  the  stones,  can  be  separately  weighed. 
When  the  clay  and  sand  have  each  been  separately  weighed 
and  the  weights  carefully  noted,  mix  the  two  substances  together 
again,  and  spread  them  evenly  on  a  thin  iron  plate.  The  plate 
should  then  be  placed  over  a  fire  and  kept  red  hot  for  a  few  hours, 
care  being  taken  not  to  allow  any  of  the  particles  to  blow  away. 
As  soon  as  the  soil  has  burnt  sufficiently,  which  is  best  determined 
by  the  change  from  a  dark  colour  to  a  reddish  hue,  it  should  be 
removed  from  the  fire  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  burnt  sand  and 
clay  should  then  be  weighed,  and  what  they  have  lost  by  burning 
is  organic  matter.  If  the  operation  has  been  carefully  carried  out, 
the  operator  will  know  the  weight  of  stones,  sand,  clay,  and  organic 
matter  in  his  soil.  One  of  the  many  soils  we  have  subjected  to 
a  mechanical  analysis  gave  the  following  results: — Stones,  £  oz. : 
sand,  21  ozs. ;  clay,  2^  ozs. ;  and  organic  matter,  1  oz. 
The  carbonate  of  lime  is  more  difficult  to  determine  than  the 
sand,  clay,  or  organic  matter,  because  the  quantity  can  only  be 
obtained  by  a  chemical  analysis.  A  simple  method  of  determin¬ 
ing  whether  a  soil  contains  much  or  little  carbonate  of  lime  is  to 
pour  diluted  hydrochloric  acid  on  to  it.  If  a  brisk  effervescence 
follow  it  denotes  that  there  is  plenty  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the 
soil  ;  if  a  feeble,  only  a  small  quantity. — W.  Dyke. 
(To  be  continued.!  s 
GROWING  MARIGOLDS  FOR  EXHIBITION. 
Marigolds  are  common  plants,  and  easily  grown  if  you  are  not 
particular  about  the  results ;  but  these  I  wish  to  write  about  are  the 
African  and  French  types,  which  aie  grown  extensively  by  cottagers  and 
amateur  gardeners  for  the  smaller  fliwer  Bhows-;  yet  how  poor  is  the 
result !  and  from  many  reasons.  Firstly,  they  start  with  cheap  seeds 
which  can  be  bought  wholesale  at  next  to  nothing  per  lb.  ;  secondly, 
they  grow  too  many  and  spoil  the  plants  before  transplanting  into  the 
open  ground  ;  and  finally  they  plant  in  unsuitable  places. 
To  grow  Marigolds  successfully  the  following  routine  must  be 
followed,  when  excellent  results  will  be  attained.  About  the  middle  of 
April  sow  the  Marigold  seed  thinly  in  boxes  and  place  in  gentle  heat  ; 
about  60°  will  suffice.  As  soon  as  the  seedlings  are  2  inches  high 
transfer  into  a  cold  frame,  and  in  a  few  days  transplant  them  4  inches 
apart  in  a  shallow  frame.  After  rooting  they  will  require  abundance  of 
water,  and  should  never  be  allowed  to  get  dry.  When  the  tops  of  the 
plants  touch  the  glass,  as  they  probably  soon  will  do,  raise  the  lights 
with  a  brick  at  both  ends,  on  fine  days  removing  them  altogether  ;  but 
be  sure  to  replace  at  night,  for  Marigolds  are  tender  plants,  and  easily 
spoiled  by  a  slight  frost. 
For  African  Marigolds  prepare  a  bed  and  dig  in  some  well-decayed 
manure,  making  the  soil  as  rich  as  for  double  Dahlias.  Lift  the  plants 
with  a  mass  of  soil  and  roots  from  the  frame,  and  plant  with  a  spade, 
placing  the  plant  into  the  ground  up  to  the  first  leaves.  They  will  make 
roots  all  up  the  buried  stem.  Eighteen  inches  apart  is  a  good  distance, 
while  when  they  attain  18  inches  in  height  they  must  be  secured  to  a  good 
stout  stick.  Thin  out  the  branches  to  three,  and  remove  all  buds  but 
one  on  each  shoot.  Some  of  these  will  be  single,  for  although  saved 
from  the  most  double  flowers  some  plants  produce  all  single  flowers, 
[f  the  buds  were  left  long  enough  the  single  flowered  plants  could  be 
detected,  but  then  it  is  too  late  to  get  the  best  results,  so  it  i3  preferable 
to  find  you  have  a  few  single  flowers  than  run  the  risk  of  losing  your 
