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JOURNAL  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. . 
May  13,  1897. 
HOEING. 
Surface  cultivation  of  the  soil  includes  hoeing,  as  amongst  the 
most  important  operations.  So  needful,  or  rather  esiential,  is  this  that 
it  is  worth  the  closest  attention  of  all  engaged  in  gardening,  whether 
they  are  commencing  or  more  advanced  in  their  career.  It  well 
repays  careful  study,  as  few  common  tasks  have  so  many  interesting 
bearings  upon  soil  condition  and  plant  economy.  Unthinking 
workmen  too  frequently  regard  hoeing  as  merely  a  ground-cleaning 
operation,  placing  it  upon  the  same  basis  as  sweeping  a  walk  or 
cleaning  a  greenhouse  ;  and  certainly  if  it  is  done  thoroughly  even 
from  this  standpoint  the  whole  purpose  is  fulfilled.  A  young 
gardener,  however,  who.  wishes  to  follow  his  calling  in  a  manner 
creditable  to  himself  and  his  employers,  should  not  be  content 
until  he  understands  the  objects  and  effects  of  every  task  he  is 
called  upon  to  perform. 
In  the  destruction  of  weeds  by  hoeing  the  objects  are  not  only 
to  prevent  soil  exhaustion  and  the  consequent  injurious  competi¬ 
tion  with  legitimate  crops,  a  matter  of  vast  importance,  but  also  to 
decrease  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  soil,  which  is  greatly 
increased  when  it  is  occupied  with  vegetation  either  as  cultivated 
plants  or  weeds.  Any  plant  that  exposes  a  large  leaf  area  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  air  absorbs  an  enormous  quantity  of  water 
from  the  soil  every  day  when  in  full  growth,  and  under  a  hot  sun 
a  large  proportion  of  this  is  immediately  evaporated.  Some  years  ago 
Dr.  Stephen  Hales  conducted  a  series  of  interesting  experiments 
in  the  evaporation  of  moisture  from  growing  plants,  and  his  results 
have  furnished  many  subsequent  observers  and  writers  with  valuable 
hints.  The  leaf  surface  of  the  plants  employed  was  measured,  and 
by  a  careful  system  of  weighing  the  plants  at  different  times  the 
amount  of  moisture  evaporated  was  determined.  The  following 
examples,  all  well  known  plants,  will  serve  to  indicate  the  results 
of  these  experiments,  and  the  subject  now  under  discussion  : — 
Plant. 
Sunflower 
Cabbage  ... 
Vine 
Apple 
Leaf  surface. 
Square  inches 
5616 
2736 
1820 
1589 
Water  evaporated 
in  twelve  hours. 
...  20  ozl 
...  19  ozs. 
...  5J  ozs. 
...  9  ozs. 
Many  weeds  can  almost  rival  the  Cabbage  in  their  leaf  surface 
and  evaporating  powers.  I  have  observed  numbers  of  vigorous 
examples  of  common  weeds  with  abundant  foliage,  that  I  have 
estimated  to  present  a  leaf-surface  of  500  to  1000  square  inches. 
When  it  is  considered  how  closely  weeds  occupy  the  ground  com¬ 
pared  with  cultivated  plants,  it  will  be  seen  that  their  moisture¬ 
evaporating  powers  are  greatly  increased. 
Probably  as  regards  all  the  smaller  growing  and  surface-rooting, 
or  annual  weeds,  the  chief  evil  arises  from  their  depriving  other 
plants  of  the  moisture  they  need  ;  but  deep-rooting  weeds  like 
docks  and  thistles  also  exhaust  the  soil  of  many  important  sub¬ 
stances  besides  water.  Those  with  creeping  roots,  like  couch  grass 
(twitch),  and  bell-bine  also  impoverish  the  ground  ;  all  such  should 
be  burnt  and  returned  as  a  surface-dressing,  for  the  double  purpose 
of  insuring  their  complete  destruction,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
mineral  constituents  of  their  ash  to  the  soil.  In  the  case  of  all 
weeds  not  bearing  seed  or  increasing  by  their  roots  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  best  means  of  turning  them  to  advantage  is  by 
digging  them  into  the  ground,  thus  converting  them  into  manure. 
Bat  this  is  seldom  practicable  when  the  ground  is  occupied  by 
crops,  and  in  consequence  we  have  to  depend  upon  our  friend  the 
hoe  for  aid  in  their  extermination. 
But  beyond  the  destruction  of  weeds  hoeing  affords  material 
help  to  the  gardener  in  cultivation,  for  surface  stirring  benefits 
crops  greatly,  as  the  majority  know,  though  all  may  not  under¬ 
stand  the  reason.  When  soil  becomes  “caked”  and  dried  on  the 
surface  the  minute  passages  between  the  atoms,  termed  capillary 
tubes,  are  innumerable,  and  through  these  moisture  contained  in 
the  soil  is  absorbed  from  a  considerable  depth  by  the  power  of  the 
sun,  and  it  escapes  just  as  it  does  from  the  pores  in  the  leaves  of 
plants.  Many  experimental  scientists  have  directed  their  attention 
to  this  subject,  and  have  shown  what  a  large  proportion  of  moisture 
is  lost  by  evaporation  compared  with  that  which  passes  through  the 
soil.  The  average  of  many  observations  on  the  Continent  and 
elsewhere  shows  the  following  per-centage — i.e 31*3  percolation 
to  63  2  evaporation.  At  Rothamsted  the  results  of  several  years’ 
observations  give  a  nearly  identical  proportion,  namely  36  8  perco¬ 
lation  to  63  2  evaporation.  In  a  series  of  experiments  at  Rothamsted 
extending  over  ten  years  the  following  records  were  obtained  : — 
Months. 
April  to  September 
October  to  March 
Rainfall.  Drainage.  Evaporation, 
inches.  inches.  inches. 
...  16-364  ...  4-393  ...  11-971 
...  14-673  ...  9-096  ...  5-577 
Any  means  that  can  be  adopted  to  reduce  this  enormous 
evaporation  must  obviously  be  of  great  advantage,  and  experiments 
have  proved  that  the  practice  of  hoeing,  even  only  as  a  surface 
stirring  expedient,  is  correct  and  beneficial  in  every  way.  At  the 
Storrs  Experimental  Station  some  comparisons  were  made  a  few 
years  ago  with  regard  to  the  effects  of  stirring  on  heavy  and  light 
soils  and  to  different  depths,  the  results  being  very  marked  in  all 
cases.  The  method  adopted  was  to  fill  cans  30  inches  deep  and 
10  inches  in  diapaeter,  evenly,  and  of  the  same  degree  of  solidity 
as  ordinary  soil,  and  these  were  then  placed  in  the  ground  so  that 
the  tops  were  level  with  the  surface,  thus  being  exposed  to  the 
same  evaporating  power  as  the  surrounding  soil.  Four  cans  were 
devoted  to  each  experiment,  the  heavy  soil  consisting  of  20  inches 
depth  of  yellow  clay  at  the  bottom,  the  upper  10  inches  being  a 
heavy  loam.  The  light  soil  had  10  inches  of  sand  at  the  bottom, 
the  upper  20  inches  being  light  loam.  The  experiments  were 
conducted  during  a  period  of  a  fortnight — namely,  from  August  15th 
to  August  31st,  when  the  weather  presented  an  average*alternation 
of  sun  and  cloud.  The  loss  of  moisture  in  the  time  named  was  as 
follows : — 
„  Heavy  Soil.  Light  Soil. 
lbs.  ozs.  lbs.  ozs 
Not  stirred  .  4  13  .  3  5 
Not  stirred  . t  .  4  9  ......  4  2 
Stirred  2  inches  ...  .  3  10  .  1  12 
Stirred  4  inches  .  3  8  .  2  3 
It  will  be  seen  that  as  regards  the  heavy  soil  the  average  gain 
was  1  lb.  2  ozs.  of  moisture  by  stirring,  and  with  the  light  soil  the 
gain  was  about  1  lb.  15  ozs.  One  advantage  of  facts  like  these  is 
that  they  serve  to  impress  upon  young  minds  the  importance  which 
attaches  to  quite  ordinary  work,  for  in  hoeing  the  continuity  of  the 
capillary  tubes  is  broken  and  the  loosened  surface  soil  becomes  a 
kind  of  non-conducting  layer,  which  may  be  said  to  serve  in  a 
measure  the  same  purpose  as  mulching.  I  remember  once  visiting 
a  celebrated  Strawberry  garden,  which,  to  my  surprise,  was  little 
better  than  a  sand  bank,  and  it  perplexed  me  how  such  a  moisture- 
loving  plant  could  be  not  only  kept  in  healthy  condition,  but  made 
to  yield  abundant  crops  of  fine  early  fruits  in  such  a  soil.  It  is 
possible  that  it  contained  naturally  some  substances  beneficial  to 
the  Strawberry,  but  beyond  this  the  owner  attributed  a  large 
measure  of  his  success  to  the  frequent  use  of  the  hoe  between  the 
rows,  especially  in  dry  weather. 
In  my  own  experience  I  have  seen  results  from  hoeing  as 
surface  stirring  only  that  were  equally  surprising,  and  in  some 
cases  it  has  produced  even  more  effect  than  an  application  of 
manure.  Heavy  soil  that  is  liable  to  crack  in  prolonged  dry 
weather  is  much  benefited  by  the  use  of  the  hoe,  for  with  cracks 
in  the  soil  an  inch  or  more  in  width  and  a  couple  of  feet  deep  it 
can  be  imagined  what  moisture  must  escape  by  evaporation. 
Timely  hoeing  not  only  prevents  a  large  portion  of  this  waste,  but 
it  prepares  the  soil  to  receive  the  rain  when  it  comes,  and  enables 
plants  to  secure  the  maximum  of  advantage  such  supplies  should 
yield. — Practitioner. 
LATE  TULIPS*  AT  LONG  DITTON. 
My  second  visit  to  Messrs.  Barr  &  Sons’  bulb  grounds  near 
Surbiton  was  under  very  favourable  wea<  her  conditions,  for  not  only 
was  the  air  warm,  but  the  sun  shone  out  gloriously,  and  created  in 
the  masses  of  Tulips  seen  on  every  hand  a  harmonious  response. 
What  marvellously  rich  as  well  as  beautiful  colours  Tulips  give, 
but  especially  the  lustrous  seifs,  for  these,  without  doubt,  create 
the  finest  effects  outdoors,  whether  in  clumps  or  masses  ;  the  most 
brilliant  ones,  which  however  florid  when  near,  viewed  from  a 
distance  giving  colouration  as  beautiful  to  look  upon  as  is  the  fiery 
setting  sun  on  a  wintry  afternoon. 
Of  all  bulbs  the  Tulip  is  undoubtedly  the  richest  in  colour,  as 
well  as  varied  in  shade  or  hue.  Striking  as  are  the  early  Dutch 
varieties,  the  late  ones,  and  especially  the  singularly  beautiful 
Darwin  forms,  excel  in  variety  as  well  as  in  delicacy  of  tint  or  colour. 
If,  as  a  rule,  the  flowers  are  less  in  Bize,  they  are  borne  on  rather 
taller  stems,  and  in  that  respect  are  so  beautiful.  When  cut  early 
for  vase  decoration  they  keep  in  a  cool  room  for  a  fortnight. 
Their  greater  height  also  gives  them  a  more  commanding  aspect, 
and  if  blooming  best  in  May,  they  do  so  under  more  acceptable 
conditions,  for  the  weather  in  the  later  month  enables  flowers  to 
be  more  completely  enjoyed. 
Very  many  persons  have  to  make  acquaintance  with  these 
Tulips  only  at  exhibitions,  and  then  usually  in  dull  light,  and  in 
mere  handfuls  ;  but  the  few  who  can  get  to  Long  Ditton  see  them, 
especially  on  a  bright  sunny  day,  in  their  glory.  If  Solomon  in 
all  his  magnificenoe  were  yet  not  arrayed  like  to  the  Lily  of  the 
fields,  how  would  he  have  compared  with  a  late  self  Tulip  of  any 
hue  or  marking  ?  Really  they  seem  to  be  flowers  of  the  gods,  the 
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