370 
JOURNAL  OF  HORTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
April  28,  1898. 
THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SOILS  OF  THE 
BEITISH  ISLES. 
I  OFFER  for  your  acceptance  some  notes  by  my  late  father  on  a 
subject  of  which  he  had  made  a  special  study  during  his  long  term  as 
head  gardener  at  Belvoir  Castle,  -snth  the  hope  that  they  may  be  of 
interest  to  the  readers  of  the  Journal  of  Horticulture.  They  are  as 
follows : — 
The  vigour  and  complete  development  of  a  plant  is  due  very 
much  to  the  soil  from  which  it  has  sprung.  The  plants  we  cultivate 
— whether  for  food,  for  economic,  or  decorative  purposes — originated 
in  soil  more  or  less  marked  by  fertility ;  the  compact  and  impervious 
soils  we  call  clay  do  not  in  their  primitive  state  invite  or  support  a 
superior  race  of  plants,  neither  are  such  found  in  barren  sands ;  we 
may  thus  learn  our  first  lesson  in  the  application  of  soils  to  cultural 
purposes,  that  a  soil  naturally  fertile  supplied  the  conditions  that 
first  promoted  the  development  of  those  properties  in  a  plant  that 
made  it  valuable  to  us,  and  to  secure  its  healthy  progress  we  must  in 
cultivating  it  continue  to  supply  it  with  earthy  matters  that  possess 
the  constituents  of  fertility. 
In  treating  of  soils  we  have  first  to  seek  in  the  geological  history 
of  the  country  an  explanation  of  their  or'gin  ;  and,  secondly,  infor¬ 
mation  as  to  their  general  or  local  occurrence.  The  diversity  in  the 
character  of  the  superficial  covering  of  earth  of  this  country 
corresponds  with  the  variety  exhibited  in  its  rocky  structure.  In  the 
comparatively  limited  area  of  the  British  Isles  we  have  examples  of 
nearly  all  the  great  geological  formations  of  the  world  ;  we  possess, 
therefore,  advantages  which  do  not  belong  to  many  other  countries  of 
similar  extent. 
Glancing  at  a  geological  map  of  the  British  Isles,  we  find  a 
development  of  igneous  rock,  trap  and  granite,  in  the  extreme  north 
and  south,  some  eruptive  masses  in  the  centre  of  the  country,  and 
more  extensive  examples  in  the  west.  Next  in  succession  appear  the 
Cambrian  rocks  in  Wales  and  Cumberland.  The  Silurian  formation  is 
represented  in  the  elevated  land  of  Shropshire  and  in  AVales.  The  old 
red  or  Devonian  has  a  considerable  expansion  in  Scotland,  Hereford¬ 
shire,  and  Cornwall.  The  carboniferous,  which  includes  the  coal 
measures,  extends  from  North  Britain  through  Northumberland, 
Durham,  Yorkshire,  Nottingham,  Leicester,  Derby,  and  Wales.  The 
permian  is  found  in  the  north,  traversing  Northumberland,  Durham, 
York,  and  Derby.  The  new  red  sandstone  occupies  a  very  important 
central  position,  extending  from  Hartlepool  on  the  Tees  to  the  Severn 
in  Gloucester,  and  a  less  important  development  in  the  south  of 
England.  The  oolite,  in  its  several  divisions,  extends  almost 
uninterruptedly  from  Whitby  in  Yorkshire  to  Lyme  Regis  in  Dorset¬ 
shire.  The  AVealden,  or  fresh-water  and  estuary  formation,  is  seen 
characteristically  in  Sussex.  The  cretaceous  or  chalk  formations  run 
along  the  borders  of  the  north-east  and  eastern  counties,  from 
Yorkshire,  and  striking  through  Berkshire,  Sussex,  and  Hampshire, 
with  Dorsetshire  form  the  South  Downs.  The  tertiary  formations — 
eocene,  miocene,  pliocene— are  chiefly  represented  in  Hants  and 
Norfolk,  and  parts  of  Lincolnshire.  The  marsh-lands  and  drifts,  and 
post  tertiary  formations,  have  their  representative  examples  in 
Lincolnshire. 
The  great  rock  and  other  formations  which  we  have  thus  cursorily 
enumerated  must  be  looked  upon  as  having  primaiily  contributed  all 
the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soils  now  spread  over  the  country. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  depositary  rocks  of  ages  incalculably  remote 
appear  on  the  surface,  and  those  of  succeeding  periods  of  time  are 
also  exposed  more  or  less  extensively.  Had  these  great  formations 
remained  undisturbed  in  their  profound  depths,  obscured  by  succeeding 
rocks  superimposed  in  due  conformity  upon  them  according  to  their 
several  periods  of  accumulation,  the  surface  configuration  of  this  part 
of  the  world  would  only  exhibit  the  last  result  of  time  in  fashioning 
its  most  recent  depositary  formation,  which  would  then  have  presented 
a  uniform  expanse  of  clay  or  sand  furrowed  by  streamlets. 
Of  the  causes  which  produced  the  upheaval  and  disruption  of  the 
lower  sedimentary  rocks  and  the  general  disturbance  and  protrusion 
of  the  superincumbent  masses  it  is  not  within  the  scope  of  our  present 
work  to  speak  or  discuss ;  but  it  is  necessary  we  should  notice  the  fact 
that  such  disruption  has  taken  place,  thus  making  available  the  rich 
stores  of  mineral  and  other  matters  which  would  otherwise  have  been 
inaccessible.  Volcanic  forces  were  also  at  work,  and  at  a  period 
subsequent  to  some  of  the  great  changes  resulting  in  the  elevation  of 
the  land  just  adverted  to  great  eruptive  masses  of  igneous  rock  and 
narrower  outbreaks  of  trap  rock  broke  through  the  carboniferous  and 
secondary  formation,  forming  ranges  of  no  mean  altitude,  and  in  their 
course  of  upheaval  dislocating  the  strata  through  which  the  eruptive 
matter  was  forced.  Succeeding  this  period  of  disturbance  another, 
and  in  relation  to  our  subject  a  most  important  change,  occurred  in 
the  subsidence  of  this  portion  of  the  then  Continent  of  Europe;  this 
was  coincident  with  a  very  considerable  climatic  depression  of  tempe- 
perature. 
The  submergence  was  so  considerable,  <that  all,  except  the  hills  of 
greatest  altitude,  were  submerged ;  and  their  exposed  summits,  so- 
marked  was  the  cold,  bore  the  characteristic  snow  and  ice  caps  of  the 
arctic  regions.  The  history  of  soil  is  so  involved  in  these  great 
geological  events,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  give  an  intelligible 
explanation  of  their  occurrence  and  distribution  without  calling  to  our 
aid  the  revelations  of  the  science  of  geology,  and  although  our 
references  have  been  to  the  past,  the  elements  which  have  wrought 
such  enormous  changes  on  the  face  of  the  earth  are  still  in  action. 
The  waves  of  the  sea  still  beat  and  wash  opposing  shores ;  rain  and 
wind,  frost  and  snow,  and  the  rushing  waters  of  a  thousand  streams,, 
still  gather  and  transport  the  lighter  particles  of  earth,  forming 
beds  of  loam  or  alluvium,  according  to  the  positions  to  which  it  is 
carried ;  and,  last  of  all,  great  earth  throes  still  tell  us  of  the  existence 
of  the  pent-up  forces  that  have  heretofore  and  may  again  show  us  how 
unstable  is  the  earth  crust  on  which  we  tread.  • 
Perhaps  no  period  in  the  geological  history  of  this  country  was 
more  eventful  in  relation  to  our  subject  than  that  comprised  in  the  time 
of  the  tertiary  system  of  geologists,  the  divisional  periods  being 
described  as  eocene,  miocene,  pliocene,  pleistocene,  and  post  tertiary. 
There  exists  evidence  of  very  considerable  changes  of  climate  during 
these  periods,  each  climatic  change  fraught  with  events  and  marked  by 
incidents  that  disturbed  existing  surfaces,  and  increased  the  deposits  of 
earthy  matter,  the  advantages  of  which  reach  us  even  at  this  time. 
Great  changes  took  place  in  the  distribution  of  sea  and  land  in 
those  periods  in  the  world’s  history.  At  one  period,  of  time  shallow 
seas,  thronged  with  forms  of  marine  life,  surrounded  and  washed  the 
shores  of  islands  which  were  clothed  with  a  vegetation  telling  of 
warmth  and  humidity.  Estuaries  bearing  the  waste  of  the  land 
formed  deposits,  in  which  were  mingled  the  relics  of  creatures  both  of 
sea  and  land.  Rivers,  rushing  in  greater  volume  than  we  find  in 
their  modern  representatives,  formed  deposits  on  a  proportionate  scale. 
Lakes,  marshes,  forests,  each  gave  their  characteristic  portions  of 
organic  and  inorganic  results. 
Another  great  change  in  the  climatic  and  physical  conditions  of 
this  part  of  Europe  succeeded,  and  it  was  during  a  period  called  by 
geologists  the  pleistocene  that  the  most  striking  and  important  events 
took  place.  Whether  through  the  divergence  of  Avarm  oceanic 
currents,  or  from  other  unascertained  causes,  a  climate  of  arctic 
severity  replaced  the  general  conditions  that  heretofore  prevailed. 
The  land  now  forming  the  British  Isles  was  partly  overwhelmed  by 
the  ice-laden  waters  of  a  northern  sea,  and,  sinking  gradually,  only  the 
ranges  of  hills  of  greatest  altitude  remained  above  tbe  waves. 
The  summits  of  these  heights  were  heavily  Aveighted  with 
accumulations  of  snow  and  ice,  and  their  rocky  structures,  acted  upon 
by  these  and  other  atmospheric  causes,  was  disrupted  and  displaced, 
and  the  fragments  carried  by  icebergs,  and  thus  dispersed  over  a  wide 
area,  to  be  found  Avhen  the  sea  bottom  became  dry  land,  and  utilised 
in  building  our  palaces. 
To  any  objection  Avhich  may  Ije  raised  that  we  are  dwelling  too 
much  on  the  geological  aspect  of  the  subject,  Ave  venture  to  say  that 
no  just  or  intelligible  account  of  soils  can  be  gHen  without  direct 
reference  to  the  facts  revealed  to  us  by  the  science  of  geology.  If  Ave 
described  the  preparation  of  a  compost  heap,  by  saying  that  a  base  of 
rough  stone  must  be  hewn  from  the  quarry,  gravel  and  sand  from 
their  beds,  limestone,  clay,  alluvium,  borrowed  from  their  several 
deposits,  the  whole  intermixed  Avith  decayed  vegetable  matter,  the 
account  would  be  accepted  as  appropriate.  In  referring  to  the  causes 
in  the  far-off  history  of  the  AAmrld  that  on  a  large  scale  prepared  and 
deposited  the  same  material,  Ave  are  detailing  information  equally 
applicable  to  the  subject. — Percy  T.  Ingram. 
(To  be  continued.) 
BLACKS  IN  POTATOES. 
In  reading  the  interesting  and  important  controA'ersy  in  the  Journal  of 
Horticulture  on  this  subject,  I  especially  remarked  that  “  Experimentalist” 
might  well  have  added  to  his  quartette  of  old  and  high  quality  varieties 
at  least  two  others — viz.,  Eortyfold  and  Early  Oxford,  possessing  as  they 
did  the  nutty  flavour,  and  were  also  veritable  “crack  their  sides,”  or 
“  starchy  customers,'*  and  though  not  particularly  heavy  croppers,  or  of 
large  size,  were  altogether  up  to  date.  I  have  a  vivid  recollection  of 
when  in  my  “prentice  ”  days,  often  enjoying  with  a  canny  Scot  an  early 
supper,  consisting  alone  of  the  said  “  murphies, a  wee  peckle  of  salt,” 
and  a  “  sup  of  milk.”  Boiled  with  their  jackets  on,  there  was  no  loss 
of  the  full  flavour  of  these  delicious  tubers. 
The  foregoing  remarks,  be  it  observed,  apply  to  upwards  of  half  a 
century  ago,  and  just  prior  to  the  initiation  of  the  murrain,  and  which 
latter,  I  well  remember,  when  in  full  career  so  decimated  the  crops 
throughout  the  land  (I  think  it  was  in  1847),  that  their  place  was  largely 
substituted  by  other  roots,  such  as  Carrots,  Parsnips,  and  Swedes. 
Regarding  the  “Blacks”  question,  it  is  indeed  worthy  of  fuller 
investigation,  though  I  opine  it  is  a  most  difficult  one  to  elucidate.  AYith 
respect  to  Up  to  Date  enjoying  a  presumed  immunity  from  the  “disease,” 
such  has  not  been  my  own  experience,  inasmuch  as  among  the  several 
samples  that  have  come  under  my  cognisance,  especially  during  the  past 
season,  they  have  been  more  or  less  affected. — W,  G.,  Birmingham, 
