September  1,  1898. 
JOURNAL  OR  HORTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
167 
THE  HISTORY  OF  THE  SOILS  OF  THE 
BRITISH  ISLES. 
C  Continued  from  page  81. ) 
River  Loams. 
In  the  endeavour  to  determine  the  characteristic  qualities  of  the 
loamy  deposits  formed  by  the  action  of  rivers,  we  may  with  advantage 
trace  the  course  of  some  of  the  principal  streams  of  the  country.  We 
shall  thus  be  able  to  show  how  greatly  the  character  and  quality  of 
our  loam  beds  depend  upon  the  mineral  peculiarities  of  the  formations 
through  which  the  waters  flow,  and  from  which  they  have  derived 
the  various  matters  which  have  been  deposited  so  largely  on  the  plains 
and  in  the  valleys  contiguous  to  them,  producing  the  distinctive  soil 
we  call  loam. 
Taking  the  Thames  for  our  first  illustration,  the  basin  of  which 
includes  in  its  area  lias,  oolite,  weald  clay,  greensand,  and  gault, 
chalk,  and  the  tertiary  deposits.  These  formations  naturally  give 
their  special  characteristics,  not  only  to  the  soil  they  contribute, 
but  to  the  water  itself,  which  is  capable  of  holding  in  solution  the 
mineral  products  of  the  land.  As  might  be  expected  the  large  area 
of  chalk,  2096  square  miles,  lime  is  largely  present  in  the  Thames 
deposits,  and  this  is  also  shown  by  the  great  accumulation  of  flinty 
gravel,  enormous  beds  of  which  exist  in  the  ancient  as  well  as  modern 
river  bed.  This  gravel  has  by  attrition  produced  considerable  deposits 
of  siliceous  sand,  often  collected  in  beds,  but  also  mixed  with  the  finer 
particles  derived  from  the  lias  and  other  clays.  Oxide  of  iron  from  the 
same  source,  soil  and  fossils  from  the  oolite  and  cretaceous  beds,  and 
organic  matter  from  many  sources,  have  together  made  the  Thames  loam 
beds  a  soil  admirably  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  and  for 
many  horticultural  purposes. 
The  river  Trent  will  serve  as  another  illustration.  This  river  has  a 
length  of  147  miles,  and  with  its  tributaries  drains  4052  square  miles. 
It  passes  through  carboniferous  limestone,  magnesian  limestone, 
permian  limestone,  and  the  marls  of  that  formation,  triassic  and  new 
red.  These  last  embracing  an  area  of  1562  square  miles.  Lias  and 
oolite  are  also  included  in  its  range. 
Traversing  so  great  an  extent  of  triassic  sandstones,  and  the  soft 
red  marls,  the  loamy  deposits  have  accumulated  extensively,  and 
partake  strongly  of  the  character  of  these  formations.  The  gypsum 
beds  of  the  new  red  have  contributed  sulphate  of  lime,  and  the 
saliferous  marls  their  peculiar  property.  The  magnesian  limestones 
have  also  yielded  their  characteristic  product.  In  the  gravels  aud 
sands  we  have  relics  of  each  of  the  formations,  including  the  grit,  and 
the  already  rounded  pebbles  of  the  Bunter  conglomerate. 
From  the  above  cursory  description  of  the  collecting  ground  of  the 
Trent,  it  will  be  seen  how  marked  a  difference  must  exist  in  the 
character  of  the  loamy  deposits  of  the  two  rivers — the  Thames  and 
Trent — and  in  this  difference  of  chemical  constituents  and  mineral 
components  will  be  found  an  explanation  of  many  cultural  difficulties 
which  have  occasionally  attended  horticultural  practice  first  pursued 
in  one  district  and  subsequently  carried  to  another  part  of  the  country. 
Roses  attain  a  very  high  development  grown  on  the  loams  of  the 
Trent,  this  suggesting  experiments  in  chemical  applications  to  soils 
less  favourable  to  that  flower. 
A  third  instance,  that  of  a  Scottish  river,  will  sufficiently  illus¬ 
trate  our  argument  as  to  the  diverse  character  of  the  loams  of  different 
rivers,  and  their  possession  of  distinct  properties,  a  matter  it  is  most 
important  that  all  persons  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  should 
be  acquainted  with.  The  Tay  drains  an  area  within  the  Grampian 
mountains,  and  portions  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  of  in  all  2250  square 
miles.  It  passes  through  granite,  trap,  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and  old  red 
sandstone.  It  is  not  to  the  action  of  running  water  alone  that  we 
must  attribute  the  immense  accumulation  of  gravel,  sand,  and  loam 
found  in  the  river  valley  of  the  Tay.  Ice  action  has  been  largely 
instrumental  in  the  production  of  detrital  matter. 
The  combined  result  of  the  water  and  ice  streams  has  been  to  form 
beds  of  enormous  thickness  Unlike  the  deposits  of  English  rivers  these 
possess  but  little  lime,  and  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  soda 
and  potash  that  is  found  is  derived  from  the  feldspathic  ingredients  of 
the  rocks ;  and  organic  matters  do  not  appear  to  have  entered  very 
largely  into  the  composition  of  the  loams  of  this  river,  but  the 
possession  of  the  mineral  constituents  of  fertility  is  attested  by  the 
successful  results  of  the  cultivation  of  fruits  and  plants  in  the  valley, 
and  the  enormous  development  attained  by  forest  trees  as  seen  at  Dun- 
keld  and  Murthley. 
The  action  of  rivers  in  the  aggregate  has  been  so  great  in  ancient 
times  in  the  displacement  and  dispersion  of  the  solid  substances  of  the 
land,  that  no  account  of  the  origin  of  soils  would  be  complete  without 
a  description  of  the  changes  that  have  been  effected  by  their  means. 
Every  river  has  its  special  history,  and  the  incidents  of  its  career  are 
written  in  its  deposits  of  sand,  and  gravel,  and  loam. 
In  the  comparatively  limited  area  of  England  and  Wales  there  are 
no  less  than  218  rivers  of  more  or  less  importance,  and  these  are  still 
active,  and  with  other  agencies  are  pursuing  the  work  of  denudation, 
annually  removing  incredible  quantities  of  earth. 
In  reviewing  the  history  of  soils,  and  especially  those  connected 
with  the  operation  of  rivers,  we  have  to  notice  the  deposits  at  once 
the  work  of  rivers  as  they  enter  the  sea,  and  the  tidal  waters  they 
encounter  in  the  estuaries,  resulting  in  the  intermixture  of  the 
mineial  and  vegetable  debris  of  the  ocean  and  the  land,  the  deposition 
ot  silt  being  so  great  in  most  cases  as  to  form  deltas,  and  so  to  lay  the 
foundation  of  tracts  ot  land.  But  it  is  not  with  the  present  operation 
of  estuaries  that  we  have  to  do,  but  rather  to  notice  while  treating 
of  loams  the  accumulations  found  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
apart  Irom  rivers,  and  the  result  of  ancient  estuarine  action  which 
still  may  be  denominated  loam.  Examples  of  this  kind  of  soil 
are  found  at  Cheshunt  in  Hertfordshire,  and  the  loam  beds  of  the 
famous  nursery  gardens  of  that  place  are  probably  ancient  estuarine 
deposits. 
The  counties  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk  possess  rich  tertiary  deposits 
of  a  distinct  and  interesting  character.  Some  of  the  marls,  loams,  and 
shelly  deposits,  extensively  distributed  throughout  these  counties, 
have  rather  the  character  of  composts  artificially  enriched,  than 
sedimentary  accumulations,  the  gift  of  angry  waters.  Many  rich 
formations  have  been  laid  under  contribution  to  furnish  the  bone 
beds,  corals,  and  other  fossils,  and  denudation  of  considerable  surfaces 
in  the  interior  of  the  country  is  indicated  by  the  occurrence  of  these 
things  on  so  extensive  a  scale.  Even  in  the  gravel  beds  of  Suffolk 
fossils  and  ironstone  from  the  middle  lias,  spoils  from  the  oolite,  and 
contributions  from  the  trias.  The  pliocene  deposits  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk  illustrate  our  remark  as  to  the  great  part  played  by  the  waters 
during  the  submergence  of  the  country  in  the  displacement  and 
redistribution  of  the  matters  composing  its  rocky  structure.  The 
retiring  waters  of  the  drift  probably  deposited  the  sands,  silts,  and 
alluviums  for  which  the  counties  are  remarkable. 
Every  river,  large  or  small,  receives  contributions  of  soil  from 
adjacent  land,  loosened  by  atmospheric  action,  and  carried  into  the 
nearest  rivers,  generally  the  arterial  drain  of  the  district,  by  rain.  The 
river  on  its  way  to  the  sea,  or  to  join  another  more  important  outlet 
for  the  waters,  passes  through  various  geological  formations,  and 
gathers  the  loose  earthy  matters,  or  any  removable  substances  from 
each,  blended  by  the  flowing  water,  and  especially  by  floods,  to  which 
all  rivers  are  liable.  These  matters  are  variously  dispersed,  but  often 
curiously  assorted  in  beds  of  sand,  silt,  gravel,  clay,  and  loam.  Some 
of  the  lighter  particles  in  flood  time  may  even  reach  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  and  precipitated  contribute  to  the  formation  of  a  delta,  but  the 
sides  of  the  river  valleys  or  the  flat  expanse  of  country  through  which 
the  stream  may  flow  receives  through  annual  inundations  the  rich 
deposits  from  the  mingled  matters ;  these  accessions  form  in  time  our 
rich  loam  beds.  Some  of  the  best  land  of  the  country  is  the  result 
of  the  deposits  of  rivers,  and  these  rich  accumulations  of  soil  often  rest 
on  beds  of  gravel,  giving  them  a  natural  and  an  efficient  drainage. 
Rivers  are  constantly  changing  their  course  and,  receding  from  the 
beds  they  have  deposited,  leave  an  expanse  of  land  of  the  finest 
quality. — P.  T.  Ingram. 
(To  be  continued.) 
OLEARIA  HAASTI. 
From  the  early  part  of  August  this  evergreen  shrub  has  been  very 
conspicuous  by  its  profusion  of  white  flower  heads,  and  has  made  its  pre¬ 
sence  “  felt  ”  by  the  fine  Hawthorn-like  scent,  it  being  deliciously  Fragrant. 
The  bushes  range  from  3  to  4  feet  in  height,  and  are  very  compact  and 
woody.  Of  the  shrubs  of  the  year  I  consider  it  one  of  the  finest,  its 
sprays  being  fit  for  the  choicest  bouquet,  and  everybody  can  have  it  for  a 
trifling  outlay.  In  winter  time  it  has  an  excellent  effect  as  an  evergreen, 
having  a  light  appearance  instead  of  a  dull,  dreary,  sombre  aspect,  so 
common  to  many  evergreens  in  winter. 
Though  a  native  of  New  Zealand  it  proves  quite  hardy  in  Mid  Herts, 
400  feet  above  sea  level.  The  soil  is  a  gravelly  loam  of  medium  texture 
over  chalk,  this  seldom  being  nearer  the  surface  than  6  feet,  and  some¬ 
times  60  feet  or  more.  It  thrives  in  rather  conSned  places,  even  in  the 
“  heart  ”  of  not  very  smoky  towns,  and  is  an  exceedingly  desirable 
evergreen  for  seaside  planting. 
According  to  some  it  succeeds  in  almost  any  soil,  but  it  went  off  with 
me  on  a  very  dry  stratum  on  oolite,  and  also  on  stiff  loam  on  lias.  I 
conclude,  therefore,  that  Olearia  Haasti  has  its  likes  and  dislikes,  hence 
my  sending  you  these  notes  of  its  success  on  gravelly  loam  which  is  stiff 
enough  to  grow  Wheat,  and  also  naturally  drained,  so  as  not  to  necessitate 
under-draining. 
The  species  is  readily  propagated  by  means  of  half-ripened  young 
shoots,  inserted  in  sandy  soil  under  a  bell-glass,  and  shaded.  The  young 
plants  cannot  be  grown  too  hardily  after  they  are  rooted,  nor  be  given 
clear  space  too  carefully  right  along  in  order  to  have  bushy  plants. 
When  leggy  they  are  not  only  ungainly,  but  do  not  transplant  well. 
Low  standards,  however,  are  very  beautiful. — St.  Albans. 
