174 
JOURNAL  OF  HOBTICULTURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
August  19,  1897. 
each  had  its  bed,  and  all  were  doing  their  best  to  insure  a  glorious 
display.  The  Asters  will  be  most  interesting  when  in  flower,  as  the  trial 
is  of  many  of  the  well-known  varieties  from  German  and  English  seeds. 
Two  Poppies  arrested  the  eye  as  it  roamed  over  the  beds,  one  a  pure 
white  and  the  other  a  rose.  The  former  was  named  White  Swan  and  the 
latter  Eosette,  and  they  are  amongst  the  finest  with  which  we  have  met. 
The  fragrance  around  ui  told  we  were  in  proximity  to  the  beds  of 
Mignonette,  of  which  there  hre  several.  The  two  best  varieties  are 
Golden  Gem  and  Webb’s  Dwarf,  the  latter  only  9  inches  in  height  and 
the  former  12.  It  is  wonderful  how  proliferous  these  are,  producing 
numbers  of  their  perfectly  clothed  spikes  on  every  plant,  and  making 
both  of  them  splendid  for  bedding  purposes.  Then  we  noticed  some 
plants  of  Carnations  carrying  an  extraordinary  number  of  flowers,  and 
we  found  that  it  was  the  firm’s  strain  of  mixed  for  bedding.  Its  excel¬ 
lence  cannot  be  doubted,  though,  of  course,  some  of  the  blooms  were  not 
quite  perfect.  Calliopsis  Sunbeam  and  Golden  King  were  gracefully 
beautiful,  while  several  beds  of  annual  Chrysanthemums  were  almost 
equally  attractive.  Delphiniums  are  a  speciality,  and  in  fig.  24  we  give 
a  photographic  reproduction  of  three  spikes  that  were  cut  at  the  farm  in 
the  flowering  season.  There  were  many  others  whose  several  merits 
entitle  them  to  inclusion  in  these  notes  ;  but  they,  with  the  greenhouse 
florists’  flowers,  must  wait  until  the  next  visit  to  Wordsley  and  Kinver 
is  paid.  _ 
Enormous  as  are  the  quantities  of  all  kinds  of  seeds  grown  here, 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  it  provides  all  the  supply  that  is 
required.  Such  is  by  no  means  the  case,  for  the  firm  has  growing  in 
various  parts  of  the  country  Barley,  Oats,  Wheat,  Potatoes,  Swedes, 
Mangold  Wurtzel,  Peas,  and  other  crops,  covering  an  area  of  something 
between  15  and  20,000  acres.  Glancing  through  the  contract  book,  it 
could  be  seen  that  this  enormous  total  was  made  up  in  lots  of  from 
10  to  50  acres,  and  that  Lincolnshire,  Hereford,  Worcester,  Kent, 
Shropshire,  Essex,  and  other  counties  each  had  a  share.  We  can  say 
no  more  of  this  our  first  visit  to  the  Worcestershire  home  of  the  Webbs. 
We  had  a  busy,  an  interesting,  and  instructive  day,  and  tender  to 
Mr.  Wm.  Webb  our  best  thanks  for  his  cordial  reception,  and  his 
readiness  to  give  all  the  information  that  was  asked  for. — Steangee, 
ABOUT  SUBSOILS. 
Subsoil  may  be  described  as  the  layer  of  earth  immediately  below 
the  ameliorated  portion,  the  former  not  being  usually  interfered  with  in 
preparing  the  ground  for  crops  with  the  plough  or  the  spade.  In  spade 
husbandry  the  subsoil  may  be  about  12  inches  from  the  surface  down¬ 
wards,  whilst  in  ordinary  farm  operations  the  surface  is  not  stirred 
deeper  than  6  inches.  There  is,  therefore,  a  great  difference  in  soils  as 
they  are  operated  on  in  gardening  and  farming  ;  and  there  is  a  difference 
in  subsoils,  though  some  vary  little  in  composition  from  the  surface  soil, 
yet  there  is  generally  a  great  distinction  between  them  in  cultural 
value. 
The  surface  or  worked  soil  contains  a  very  much  larger  proportion  of 
organic  matter  and  soluble  food  for  plants,  and  though  liable  to 
impoverishment  by  the  crops,  is  benefited  by  the  roots  and  other  parts 
of  such  plants  as  remain  after  the  crop  is  taken.  These  decay,  and  in 
combination  with  applied  manures  give  the  surface  soil  an  immense 
advantage  over  the  subsoil,  as  it  can  derive  little  or  no  increase  of 
organic  matter  through  the  comparative  inaccessibility  of  air  and  rain. 
It  must  not,  however,  be  overlooked  that  the  surface  soil  is  altered  in 
texture  by  the  crops.  It  is  made  more  open  by  the  roots  that  traverse  it, 
and  its  friableness  is  increased  by  the  operation  of  tillagei  This  admits 
of  the  frerr  access  of  the  great  solvents,  air  and  rain,  insuring  a  more 
speedy  decomposition  of  organic  matter,  or  the  formation  of  it,  this 
decomposition  causing  some  of  the  soluble  matter  to  pass  down  to  the 
subsoil,  which,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say,  is  a  direct  increase  to  the 
resources  of  the  soil  as  it  affects  the  crops.  The  compounds  taken  down 
remain  in  the  subsoil  in  proportion  to  its  retentive  power.  They  exert 
influence,  useful  as  food,  or  for  food  manufacture  out  of  otherwise  inert 
mattef,  or  are  injurious  to  plants  from  the  lack  of  the  necessary 
correctives  essential  to  changing  the  compounds  into  plant  food.  Some 
soils  may  be  almost  sterile  before  they  are  exposed  to  air,  or  they  may  be 
of  little  value  for  useful  crops  until  the  deleterious  substances  in  the 
subsoil  have  been  changed  by  the  application  of  some  materials,  as  that 
of  lime  to  peat  or  boggy  soils,  which  are  impregnated  with  the  salts  or 
oxides  of  iron. 
If  the  subsoil  be  sand  or  gravel,  or  otherwise  of  a  loose  nature,  the 
soluble  compounds  brought  into  it  by  rain  soon  pass  away,  so  that  there 
is  less  addition  of  useful  food,  and  it  follows,  less  danger  of  the  dele¬ 
terious  matter  being  retained.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  subsoil  is 
clay,  it  retains  what  is  brought  down  by  rain  passing  through  the  surface 
soil,  which  may  in  effect  contribute  to  the  soil’s  fertility,  or  prove 
deleterious  through  retaining  the  poisonous  as  well  as  the  soluble  com¬ 
pounds  that  are  useful  as  food  for  plants.  An  efldcient  system  of 
drainage,  it  is  evident,  must  form  the  basis  of  all  operations  having  for 
their  object  fitting  the  soil  for  a  variety  of  crops,  and  for  making  the 
most  of  the  cultural  operations  through  the  changes  effected  by  the  free 
access  of  air  and  rain,  to  assist  in  the  disintegration  of  stubborn 
materia],  and  change  the  otherwise  inert  or  injurious  compounds  by  the 
application  of  corrective  material  into  nutriment  for  crops. 
Subsoil  is  apt  to  be  overlooked  in  deciding  on  the  fertility  of  soils,. 
yet  it  exerts  a  commanding  influence  on  the  surface  soil.  When  the- 
subsoil  is  open  and  sandy  it  is  poor,  through  its  lacking  the  means  of 
retention  of  the  soluble  compounds  brought  into  it  from  the  surface  soil 
by  rain,  which  drains  away  rapidly,  and  as  evaporation  from  the  surface 
soil  is  correspondingly  free,  the  plants  grown  thereon  suffer  greatly  in 
time  of  drought.  It  is  evident  that  to  materially  improve  such  soil  some 
substance  must  be  employed  that  will  render  it  more  retentive  alike  of 
rain  and  of  the  manorial  matter  employed  ;  the  non-calcareous  by  a 
dressing  of  chalk  or  of  clay  marl,  whichever  may  be  most  convenient,, 
though  the  latter  would  perhaps  be  the  most  effective  from  its  adding 
by  the  divisibility  of  its  parts  to  the  rooting  area  and  the  increased 
retention  of  the  solvent  compounds.  It  is  well  perhaps  to  notify  that  a 
siliceous  marl  is  only  valuable  to  a  light  soil  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  chalk  present,  and  deleterious  in  relation  to  the  percentage  of 
silica  or  sand,  on  which  account  it  is  not  nearly  so  beneficial  for  light 
soil  as  the  clay  marl  having  clay  or  alumina  as  a  component  part.  To- 
effect  a  permanent  improvement,  100  cartloads  per  acre,  mixed 
with  the  soil,  but  not  so  as  to  interfere  with  its  tillage,  is  a  proper 
quantity. 
Some  light  soils  have,  beside  a  sandy  or  gravelly  subsoil,  an  under 
stratum  of  clay,  pr  conglomerated  sediment  of  various  earths  largely 
impregnated  with  oxides  of  iron,  which  retains  the  water  to  a  certain 
level,  and  from  such  Horsetails  and  Thistles  spring  strongly  and  in  pro¬ 
fusion.  Such  reservoirs  of  moisture  are  of  no  value,  but  the  contrary, 
inasmuch  as  they  contain  substances  poisonous  to  useful  plants  through 
stagnation.  The  water  in  such  cases  must  be  carried  off  by  drains,  so  as 
to  prevent  its  lodging  within  3  feet  of  the  surface;  indeed,  all  soils 
should  be  freed  of  water  beyond  their  retentive  power  within  3  feet  of 
the  surface  by  sn  efScient  system  of  drainage. 
Where  the  subsoil  is  clay,  more  or  less  impervious  to  water,  the  rain 
passing  through  the  surface  soil  is  retained,  or  otherwise,  according  ta 
the  degree  of  porosity,  and  collects  in  the  low  places  or  hollows,  stagna¬ 
tion  ensuing,  forming  organic  acids  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  air 
acting  on  the  decomposing  remains  of  previous  crops,  or  the  remnants  of 
the  manures  not  appropriated  by  prior  crops.  The  surface  soil  in 
consequence  is  rendered  cold,  sodden,  and  sour.  Nothing  but  an  efficient 
system  of  drainage  can  render  such  land  for  profitable  cultivation, 
inasmuch  as  other  operations  are  frustrated  until  the  land  is  freed  of 
the  stagnant  water  and  poisonous  compounds.  The  drainage  alone  will 
change  the  nature  of  the  subsoil,  as  the  water  dislodged  by  the  drains 
will  be  followed  by  air,  and  the  organic  elements  will  form  nitric  acid 
in  addition  to  that  brought  into  the  soil  by  rain,  whereby  the  poisonous 
compounds  will  be  neutralised  and  nitrogenised,  and  food  stored  in  the 
soil  for  the  support  of  useful  crops. 
Clay  subsoils  should  be  well  bn  ken  up.  For  gardens,  whether  flower, 
vegetable,  or  fruit,  the  land  should  be  trenched,  not  turning  the  top 
ameliorated  soil  under  one  or  two  spits  of  stubborn  material,  but  keeping 
all  the  workable  portion  uppermost,  the  stiff  material  being  kept  under, 
yet  disturbed  in  order  to  form  passages  for  the  free  percolation  of  water- 
through  it,  and  to  insure  cavities  for  the  storing  of  air,  moisture,  and' 
warmth.  Although  the  ameliorated  soil  should  be  kept  at  the  top,  some 
of  the  under  layer  may  be  brought  to  the  surface,  as  such  contains- 
substances  required  by  plants  that  have  passed  into  the  subsoil,  leaving 
the  surface  more  or  less  exhausted.  It  is  a  direct  means  of  affording 
new  soil,  which,  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  pierced  by  frost,  or  baked 
by  sun,  becomes  pulverised,  mixing  readily  with  the  bulk,  enhancing 
its  fertility.  There  is  the  still  further  advantage  of  increased  depth  for 
roots,  whilst  the  blending  of  the  manures  with  the  new  soil  improves  the 
wh<le  ccnsiderably,  a  larger  food  being  provided  and  furnished  with 
sustenance  for  crops. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  effect  next  to  breaking  up  a  clay  soil  is  to  burn 
some  of  the  stubborn  material  ;  this  alters  its  texture,  rendering  it  more, 
open,  consequently  more  permeable  to  air,  water,  and  the  roots  of  plaiits. 
Its  affinity  for  ammonia  is  also  increased,  and  a  much  greater  proportion 
of  soluble  alkalies,  especially  of  potash  and  soda,  provided  ;  but  that- 
depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  degree  of  burning,  for  if  hard  burned 
the  clay  will  be  of  the  nature  of  bricks,  and  its  alkaline  constituents  are- 
then  less  soluble  than  of  the  clay  in  its  original  state.  The  roost  that 
should  be  sought  by  burning  is  that  the  clay  may  readily  crumble.  In 
that  state  100  cartloads  per  acre  is  a  fair  dressing,  applying  it  to  the 
surface,  and  it  will  render  a  good  account  of  the  ammonia  within  reach, 
absorbing  it  from  the  atmosphere  and  from  manures  or  by  whatever 
means  supplied. 
In  the  case  of  very  stubborn  clays  it  is  advantageous  to  mix  some- 
of  the  harder  burned  particles  with  the  stubborn  material  at  the 
bottom  of  the  trenches,  by  which  means  the  permeability  of  the  soil 
to  air,  rain,  and  roots  is  made  more  durable,  acting  alike  as  a  store¬ 
house  of  moisture  and  food,  from  which  the  crops  can  draw  supplies  irv 
times  of  drought,  the  roots  being  attracted  downwards  by  the  moisture 
they  inadequately  receive  at  the  surface,  and  as  they  must  in  due  course 
decay  they  tend  to  open  the  soil  to  a  greater  depth,  and  supply  organic 
matter  for  its  enrichment.  In  that  way  soils  which  have  only  a  thin 
layer  of  ameliorated  soil  can,  no  matter  how  stubborn  the  subsoil,  be 
deepened,  and  in  tbe  course  of  a  few  years  so  much  so  that  the  ground 
can  be  trenched  two  or  three  spits  deep,  blending  the  whole  mass  with 
very  great  benefit  to  the  crops.  What  most  land  needs  is  new  soil- 
brought  to  the  surface  to  be  ameliorated  and  enriched  by  the  action  of 
light,  air,  and  rain,  pulverised  and  made  workable  by  frost  or  sun,  in 
which  state  the  soil  derives  the  greatest  benefit  from  tbe  solid  manures, 
applied,  and  tbe  whole  staple  is  permanently  improved.— A. 
