JOURXAL  OF  IIORTIGULrURE  AND  COTTAGE  GARDENER. 
7i 
granite  and  other  igneous  rocks  are  likewise  more  soluble  in 
water  containing  carbonic  acid. 
Oxygen,  composing  about  one-fifth  of  the  air,  is  a  very 
active  body,  very  energetic  in  promoting  the  decay  of  rocks 
or  soils,  upon  the  constituents  of  which  it  may  act  either 
in  the  form  of  an  atmospheric  gas,  or  as  a  solution  in  water. 
When  oxygen  combines  with  a  substance  this  is  said  to  be 
oxidised,  and  as  rock  substances  are  liable  to  oxidation, 
the  oxides  thus  formed  may  be  carried  away  as  well  as 
diffused  through  soil  dissolved  in  water ;  hencfe  the  forma- 
lion  of  soils  is  further  effected.  Both  oxygen  and  carbonic 
acid  are  invisible  gases,  tasteless,  smell-less,  the  first  an 
element,  the  latter  a  compound,  carbonic  acid  gas  being  the 
heaviei’. 
Soils,  therefore,  are  due  to  the  weathering  of  rocks,  and 
the  weathering  agents  by  which  rocks  are  converted  into 
soils  do  not  cease  to  act  when  at  length  a  soil  is  formed. 
Owing  to  the  loose  condition  of  cultivated  soils  thev  are 
more  susceptible  than  uncultivated  land  or  rocks  to  the 
influence  of  frost  and  rain  and  snow,  of  running  water,  and 
of  oxygen  and  carbonic  acid,  for  these  agents  are  more 
easily  given  access  to  the  recesses  of  relatively  loose  than 
to  firm  soil  or  to  those  of  rock. 
Other  agents  also  work  upon  the  soil,  breaking  up  its 
fabric,  especially  cultivated,  whereon  crops  grow  and  are 
removed,  of  which  their  roots,  or  some  of  them,  remain  in 
the  soil  to  increase  the  store  of  inorganic  matter  or  humus. 
This,  in  the  course  of  decay,  not  onlj;'  enriches  the  air  in  the 
soil  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  but  this  increases  the  solvent 
power  of  the  soil  water,  and  thus  under  the  influence  of  the 
air  and  water  in  the  soil  the  rocky  fragments  are  broken 
lip  and  added  to  the  store  of  soil,  though  the  components 
of  it  are  ever  changing. 
This  is  caused  by  certain  ingredients  of  the  soil  being 
carried  away  in  crops,  while  at  the  same  time  the  mould 
is  constantly  being  added  to  by  the  decay  of  the  rock  frag¬ 
ments  the  soil  contains.  Besides,  rain  brings  with  it  from 
the  atmosphere  certain  substances  of  much  importance  in 
respect  of  the  soil’s  fertility.  Then  there  are  lowly  forms 
of  animctl  life  ever  working  in  their  own  interests  and  in 
favour  of  vegetation.  These  embrace  the  earthworms, 
which  feed  upon  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  and  pass 
enormous  quantities  of  earth  through  their  bodies.  The 
earth  thus  passed  is  ejected  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
a  great  disfigurement  on  lawns,  yet  a  source  of  untold  en¬ 
richment  on  pastures,  meadow,  and  .arable  land. 
More,  air  and  Avater  can  penetrate  more  freely  into  the 
.soil  through  their  burrotvs,  thus  hastening  the  Avork  of 
decomposition.  The  effect  of  the  eartliAvorm  labour,  said 
\p  be  50,000  in  an  acre  of  land,  in  reducing  the  soil  to  a; 
fine  conclition  is  immense,  the  fine  earth  brought  to  the 
surface  enriching  the  soil  in  nitrogen,  and  the  little  mounds, 
afterAvards  crumbled  doAvn  and  levelled  by  the  action  of 
Avind  and  sun,  form  a  rich  top-dressing,  to  Avhich  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  a  close,  compact  greensward  in  parks  and  old 
pastures  is  largely  due  ;  also  that  surfacing  of  fine  earth 
bonded  together  by  the  I’oots  of  grasses  and  other  herbage, 
Avhich  the  horticulturist  terms  fibrous  loam,  and  to  Avhich 
his  success  in  the  cultivation  of  many  floAvers,  fruits,  and 
vegetables,  as  Avell  as  plants  groAvn  for  their  foliage,  largely, 
and  in  many  cases,  mainly  depends.  Such,  then,  are  the 
effects  of  frost,  rain,  and  even  of  snoAv,  simply  a  form  of 
rain,  as  seen  in  Nature  and  cultivatio.n  from  the  scientific 
and  practical  point  of  A'ieAV  ;  but  the  latter  Avill  be  the 
theme  of  further  observations. — G.  Abbf.y. 
A  Pneumatic  Fruit  Grader. 
A  now  grader  has  been  put  upon  the  market,  which  is  so 
constructed  that  the  fruit  rolls  against  pneumatic  tubes  as  it  i.s 
being  carried  oA'er  the  grader.  A  number  of  advantages  are 
claimed  for  the  grader.  It  is  said  to  grade  the  fruit 
accurately  and  well,  but  one  of  the  principal  advantages  i.s  that 
it  handles  the  fruit  Avithout  any  possibility  of  damage,  the  soft 
sides  of  the  pneumatic  tubes  doing  aAvay  Avith  bruised  fruit.  If 
the  neAv  improved  grader  Avill  save  the  packers  the  heavy  losses 
sustained  every  year  through  bruised  fruit,  then  the  pneumatic 
grader  Avill  be  a  A’aluable  acquisition  to  packing-house  machinery. 
I'h'ery  year,  when  the  fruit  bccome.s  ripe  and  tender,  immense 
losses  are  sustained,  OAving  to  bruised  fruit  causing  rot,  and 
often  the  losses  on  one  car  Avoidd  buy  several  of  these  new  graders. 
This  grader  has  been  used  in  Georgia  for  grading  Peaches,  and 
lias  Avorked  successfully,  and  this  is  cited  as  proof  that  it  can 
handle  Lemons  Avithout  any  danger  of  injuring  them  in  the 
least. 
.laiiuaiy  22,  1903. 
Wall  Fruit  Trees. 
Pruning,  cleansing,  and  re-arrangement  of  branches  of 
Apples,  Pears,  Plums,  Cherries,  Figs,  Apricots,  Peaches, 
Nectarines,  Gooseberries,  and  Currants,  may  be  dealt 
Avith  in  the  order  named  on  every  favourable  opportunity. 
Apples  and  Pears. 
are  usually  groAvn  on  Avails  as  trained  trees  of  the  horizontal 
type,  fan-trained  and  cordons.  Shoidd  thei'e  be  any  crowd¬ 
ing  of  the  branches  this  ought  first  to  be  remedied,  as  the 
fruitless  condition  of  old  trees  is  often  owing  to  this  defect 
in  culture.  Special  attention  should  be  given  to  young 
trees  becoming  established,  so  as  to  av’oid  originating  the 
branches  too  closely  together  in  the  case  of  the  horizontally 
and  fan-trained.  The  danger  of  the  overcroAvding  cordons 
lies  in  planting  them  too  closely  in  the  first  instance.  Thin 
out  the  branches,  especially  those  which  are  furnished  Avdth 
spurs  to  one  foot  apart.  Some  trees  Avhich  may  produce 
larger  leaves  should  have  more  space  between  the  branches. 
In  addition  to  thinning  the  branches,  it  is  also  necessary  to 
reduce  the  number  of  spurs  on  old  trees,  and  to  gradually 
shorten  back  elongated  spurs.  This  applies  to  cordons  as 
well  as  to  other  spur-furnished  branches.  Cuts  should  be 
made  clean  by  paring  them  down  Avell.  Also  cut  out  dead 
Avood  from  every  part  of  the  trees. 
Pluais  and  Cherries. 
The  pruning  of  fan-shaped,  horizontal,  and  cordon  trees 
consists  in  judiciously  removing  the  parts  Avhich  are  not 
likely  to  be  fruitful,  and  giving  proper  space  to  the  buds 
Avhich  are  developing  to  a  fruiting  condition.  In  fan- 
trained  trees  there  may  be  a  combination  of  branches 
clothed  with  spurs,  and  healthy  young  shoots  laid  in.  On 
those  trees  which  Avere  summer-pruned,  leaving  about  hin 
of  young  growth,  this  can  noAv  be  reduced  to  half  that 
length,  fruit  buds  usually  forming  freely  on  this  lower  part. 
Healthy  young  groAvths  may  be  utilised  to  fill  vacancies, 
partly .  shortening  the  unripe  ends. 
Morello  Cherries  are  ti’eated  someAvhat  differently, 
these,  as  a  rule,  succeeding  best  Avhen  an  ample  supply  of 
young  groAvths  are  laid  in,  branches  furnished  with  spurs 
not  producing  such  fine  fruit.  The  shoots  must,  of  course, 
have  been  selected  in  summer,  and  become  thoroughly  Avell 
ripened. 
Figs. 
Figs  trained  on  walls  should  have  the  branches 
examined,  so  as  to  remove  all  Aveakly  and  exhausted 
branches,  those  that  are  crowded  and  the  old  bearing 
groAvths.  The  shoots  trained  in  may  be  Avell  ripened 
groAvths  of  the  previous  season,  laying  them  in  thinly,  and 
leaving  them  at  full  length. 
Outdoor  Vines. 
Where  there  are  Vines  groAving  on  outdoor  Avails  or 
trellises  they  ought  noAv  to  be  pruned.  The  method  of 
pruning  depends  largely  on  the  manner  of  groAAdh.  Very 
old  specimens  may  be  croAvded  unduly  Avith  a  system  of 
old  rods,  furnished  Avith  gnarled  and  tAvisted  spurs.  The 
worst  of  these  may  Avith  great  advantage  be  replaced  with 
younger  groAvths  or  canes,  which,  thoroughly  ripened  and 
not  left  longer  than  about  4ft.  Avill  bear  fruit.  Some  out¬ 
door  Vines  are  not  generally  cultivated  on  the  spur  system, 
but  Avhat  is  termed  the  extension  plan,  cutting  out  old 
groAvths  annually  and  laying  in  ncAv  rods.  Canes  that  haA'e 
previously  been  treated  on  the  siAur  system,  and  are  in  a 
healthy  condition,  Avith  the  spurs  close  to  the  main  rod,  may 
be  retained.  In  pruning  the  side  shoots  shorten  them  to 
two  buds.  If  there  are  a  number  of  side  shoots  on  each 
spur  cluster,  it  Avill  be  essential  to  remove  some,  further 
disbudding  being  done  Avhen  groAvth  starts.  Wash  the  rods 
Avith  insecticide.  A  mixture  of  4oz  of  softsoap  in  a  gallon 
of  Avater,  to  Avhich  add  a  handful  of  sulphur.  Avill  prove 
a  serviceable  Avash.  Red  spider  is  often  troublesome,  so 
the  solution  should  be  Avell  Avorked  into  all  creA'ices  round 
the  spurs,  any  loose  bark  AA’hich  can  be  easily  rubbed  off 
being  removed. — E.  I).  S. 
