Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e143481 (eo @)
doi: 10.3897/BDJ.13.e143481 open access
Methods

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric

contact microphone - examples with insects

llia Gionovt, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova?, Monika Pramatarova*$

+ Sofia University, Faculty of Biology, Sofia, Bulgaria
§ National Museum of Natural History - Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria

Corresponding author: Ilia Gjonov (gionov@cicadina.com)

Academic editor: Fedor Konstantinov

Received: 03 Dec 2024 | Accepted: 30 Jan 2025 | Published: 14 Feb 2025

Citation: Gjonov |, Lapeva-Gjonova A, Pramatarova M (2025) Biotremological research using a DIY
piezoelectric contact microphone - examples with insects. Biodiversity Data Journal 13: e143481.
https ://doi.org/10.3897/BDJ.13.e143481

Abstract

This study presents a new design of sensor tool to record substrate-borne vibrations
produced by insects. We applied a piezo element acting as a contact microphone
connected to a digital recorder to detect the signals emitted by insects. A suitable 3D
printed microphone box with a mechanism of connection to the substrate or to soft
tweezers holding the insect is created. We found that the recordings of the low-frequency
signals (up to 20 KHz) were sufficiently good for analysis and, at the same time, a much
faster and easier method than the common ones of detecting micro-vibrations using a
piezoelectric sensor and, importantly, is incomparably cheaper than using a laser
vibrometer. This setup is suitable for the detection and structural description of signals
emitted by insects and other arthropods. Oscillograms, spectrograms and audio files of
the recorded signals of selected ants (Manica rubida, Latreille, 1802, Messor wasmanni
Krausse, 1910, Myrmica ravasinii Finzi, 1923) and Ponera coarctata (Latreille, 1802)), an
ant nest beetle (Paussus turcicus |. Frivaldszky von Frivald, 1835), a planthopper
(Orosanga japonica (Melichar, 1898)) and a jumping plant louse (Bactericera perrisii
Puton, 1876) are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the created equipment.
The recordings from stridulation in Myrmica ravasinii, Manica rubida, Ponera coarctata
and Paussus turcicus and the male call song of Orosanga japonica represent the very
first documented signal production for these species. A scheme of the contact
microphone and its mode of connection is shown. The research presented will

© Gjonov | etal. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY
4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are
credited.

2 Gjonov | et al

democratise biotremological methods for the needs of integrative taxonomy and
behavioural ecology, providing a broader understanding of vibrational signals through an
efficient, accessible and operational method for both professional and citizen scientists.

Keywords

biotremology, Hemiptera, Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, vibroacoustics

Introduction

Biotremology is a new, rapidly growing discipline that studies communication by surface-
borne vibrations detected by specialised sensory receptors and organs in animals (Hill
and Wessel 2016, Hill et al. 2022, Roberts and Wickings 2022). Unlike the acoustic
signal (sound), which is transmitted in a uniform fluid medium (gas, liquid) by longitudinal
compression waves, vibration signals are transmitted in a solid environment (e.g. plant,
soil) by mechanical waves with low speed and frequency of 50-5000 Hz (Michelsen et al.
1982, Hill and Wessel 2016). Vibrations and sound waves, commonly referred to as
vibroacoustics, cannot be easily separated since the same physical mechanism usually
generates both simultaneously (Masoni et al. 2021).

At least 200,000 species rely on vibrational communication, many of them exclusively
(Cocroft and Rodriguez 2005, Hill and Wessel 2016, Virant-Doberlet et al. 2023). This
ancient form of communication has been documented in 17 insect orders and 148
families, with a preponderance of studies in Hemiptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera
(Turchen 2021). Although there are different taxon-specific names for the behavioural
mechanisms used by animals to send vibrational signals, they refer to drumming,
stridulation, tremulation, tymbal and vocalisation (Hill and Wessel 2016). In essence,
vibrations are an important communication and sensory tool for insects, often associated
with mating, territorial display, alarm, predator avoidance and detection, foraging and
coordination in social insects (Virant-Doberlet and Cokl 2004, Cokl and Virant-Doberlet
2009).

Records of vibroacoustic signalling still represent only a small fraction of the presumably
huge percentage of insects in which such communication is thought to occur (Cocroft and
Rodriguez 2005). For example, there are records for only 40 species of bark beetles
(Curculionidae, Scolytinae) out of 6000 (Arjomandi et al. 2024) and comparable
knowledge of acoustic communication in jumping plant lice, with just over 100 species
out of 4000 described so far (Liao et al. 2022). There is a huge gap in the available
records of vibroacoustic communication in one of the dominant groups of terrestrial
insects, such as ants. This is even more true for Palaearctic species, despite their
comparatively good taxonomic investigation. For the latter, signal data are available for a
limited number of species in the genera Camponotus, Crematogaster, Myrmica, Messor,
Leptothorax and Pheidole (Fuchs 1976, Zhantiev and Sulkanov 1977, Stuart and Bell
1980, Grasso et al. 2000, Barbero et al. 2009, Sala et al. 2014, Di Giulio et al. 2015,

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 3

Casacci et al. 2021, Masoni et al. 2021). Furthermore, using vibroacoustic
communication to discover cryptic ant species highlights its potential for integrative
taxonomy (Ferreira et al. 2010, Pena Carrillo et al. 2021).

Several techniques and types of sensors have been developed to accurately detect the
substrate-borne signals produced by insects, depending on the specific requirements of
the research. The most common are laser Doppler vibrometry (LDV), piezoelectric
accelerometers, gramophone cartridges and micro-electromechanical sensors (MEMS).

LDV is one of the most widely used vibration recording techniques and is considered the
‘gold standard’ for recording (Hill et al. 2022). It uses laser beams to measure the velocity
of surface vibrations without physical contact, making it highly precise and non-invasive.
LDVs can record vibrations at a very small point, providing opportunities for spatial signal
propagation studies. Particularly rich are the capabilities of scanning LDVs, which can
also record 4D sound (taking into account spatial and temporal metrics). A disadvantage
of these sensors is their very high cost, which makes them inaccessible in cases where
acoustic research is carried out by hobbyists or by scientists whose main work is not
biotremology. Due to their high precision, LDVs are well suited for use in laboratory
conditions, but have some disadvantages related to their high mass, high power
consumption and overheating in warm environments (Sturm et al. 2019).

Piezoelectric accelerometers convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals,
which can then be recorded and analysed using materials that generate a voltage when
subjected to mechanical stress (the piezoelectric effect). These sensors are widely used
for recording insect microvibrations, particularly in plants, as they can be attached to
stems or leaves to measure substrate-borne vibrations. Piezoelectric accelerometers
have been used to detect mating calls, territorial signals and alarm signals in various
insect species (e.g. Stuart and Bell (1980), Cocroft et al. (2000), Wenninger et al. (2009)).

Grammophone cartridges can be of two main types: dynamic (inductive) or
piezoelectric. They are widely used as sensors in biotremological research (Cocroft et al.
2000, Tishechkin 2007, Percy et al. 2008, Liao and Yang 2015, Lin et al. 2019, Tishechkin
2023). They are suitable for recording sound both in the laboratory and in the field. They
are low-noise, sensitive and relatively inexpensive. Their main disadvantage is that they
are relatively complicated to use, requiring the substrate to be pressed against the
cartridge needle with a precise force.

MEMS are miniature devices that incorporate mechanical and electronic components on
a micro-scale. Although they are based on the piezo effect, changes in capacitive or
inductive reactance or other physical phenomena similar to microphones, their common
feature is miniaturisation. These sensors are increasingly being used in insect vibration
studies due to their compact size, sensitivity and versatility. MEMS can detect very small
amplitude vibrations and are often used in portable recording setups. MEMS-based
sensors were used to study the role of microvibrations in honeybee hives (Nolasco et al.
2019). This type of sensor is used relatively infrequently and its potential for
biotremological research is likely to be exploited in the future.

4 Gjonov | et al

The choice of sensor and technique depends on the specific research question, insect
species and substrate involved. Each method has its strengths and limitations, making it
important to select the appropriate tool based on the study requirements. Researchers
often combine these methods to obtain a comprehensive picture of insect vibrational
communication.

In the search for a low-cost method for detecting insect vibrations, we have designed a
new DIY piezoelectric contact microphone as an accessible and efficient tool that can be
used in a variety of settings. It could enable researchers, particularly those in resource-
limited environments, to carry out sophisticated vibration studies without the need for
expensive equipment.

Materials and methods
Materials:

° Piezoelectric Discs: These discs, available from electronic component suppliers,
generate an electrical signal when subjected to mechanical vibrations. For our
setup, we used a 27 mm white label disc with a resonant frequency of 4.6 (+ 0.5)
KHz and a resonant impedance of max 300 Q;

° Alligator clip: Used to securely attach the piezo disc to substrates such as plant
stems, minimising signal loss;

° 3D printed microphone housing: A housing that contains the piezo element, the
cables and the base of the alligator clip that serves to attach it to the substrate
(Fig. 1, Suppl. material 1). To protect the device from electromagnetic interference,
aluminium foil shields are placed on both sides of the piezo element and
connected to the ground. A shielding aluminium foil and an alligator clip are
attached to the base of the case using epoxy glue. After an additional insulating
layer of epoxy adhesive is applied, the piezo element is attached. The remainder
of the case is filled with epoxy adhesive, making the entire construction strong
and moisture resistant. The 3D model of the sensor housing was created using
the open source software Blender (Blender Online Community 2018);

° Shielded Cable: A shielded cable is used to connect the piezo disc to a recording
device, preventing electromagnetic interference;

° Recording Device with pre-amplifier: A portable audio recorder with adequate
sensitivity for vibration recording. Any digital recorder with a microphone input
should be suitable. Three different recorders were used (See Recording setup).
The best results were obtained using Zoom F6. Important for getting better
recordings is using recorders with low preamp noise.

Construction:

° Assembly: The piezoelectric disc is connected to the coaxial cable by soldering
the leads;

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 5

° Attachment: The piezoelectric sensor is attached to a substrate (e.g. plant stems,
leaves or the ground) using adhesives or clips, ensuring close contact for optimal
signal capture;

° Recording Setup: The output of the sensor is connected to an audio interface or
portable recorder, which captures the vibrational signals.

Figure 1. EES

3D model of microphone case.

Recording setup:

To record the signals of some of the insects (Hemiptera), test tubes were used in which
plants and insects were placed (Fig. 2a). The tubes were clamped to the microphone with
an alligator clip. Other insects (beetles, ants) were recorded by grasping the thorax with
the tip of soft tweezers. The soft tweezers were, in turn, clamped with an alligator clip, with
the pressure of the clamp being adjusted by the distance at which it was clamped - the
closer to the tip of the tweezers the alligator clip was clamped, the stronger the insect was
clamped (Fig. 2b).

In the setup shown in Fig. 2a, which has been tested in several Hemiptera for calling
signals, the alligator clip is clamped on to the substrate, which can be either a plant stem
or a test tube in which the plant is placed. In the experimental setup suitable for ants and
beetles (Fig. 2b), the insects typically began to produce a distress signal spontaneously,
as a result of stridulation. In contrast to the setup used in other studies, where the insect is
held at a short distance from the microphone (e.g. Grasso et al. (2000), Ferreira et al.
(2010), Pena Carrillo et al. (2021)), in our arrangement, the insect is connected to the
contact sensor via the tweezers.

Signals were recorded using Tescam DR-60DMKkIl (96 kHz/24-bit), Zoom F3 (192 kHz/32-
bit) and Zoom F6 (192 kHz/32-bit). All recorders have built-in preamps. Open source
Audacity 3.6.1 software (Audacity Team 2024) was used for signal processing. For the

6 Gjonov | et al

preparation of oscillograms and sonograms, a Sonic Visualiser 5.0.1 was used (Cannam
et al. 2010).

a

Figure 2.

Recording setup (1 - recording device; 2 - stand; 3 - shielded cable; 4 - sensor with alligator
clips; 5 - substrate (host plant or testing tube with host plant); 6 - soft tweezers) suitable for:

a: calling signals in Hemiptera; EE]

b: signals from stridulation in Formicidae and Coleoptera. EER

Results and discussion
Results
Performance Evaluation:

° Sensitivity: The DIY piezoelectric contact microphone was capable of detecting
vibrations in the typical range of insect signals (50-5000 Hz), similar to
commercial devices. At the same time, since the frequency response of the piezo
disc is known to depend on the environment, the mounting of the disc and many
other parameters, the proposed sensor has its limitations and cannot be used for
some types of biotremological studies. Nor can it be used to record vibrations ata
specific point, as can be done with a laser vibrometer.

° Cost: The entire setup, including the piezo disc, cable and amplifier, costs less
than $10, significantly more affordable than commercial solutions that often
exceed $1000.

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 7

° Durability: The DIY sensor was tested in both laboratory and field conditions. It
performed well under varying humidity and temperature conditions,
demonstrating its suitability for field research.

° Availability: The developed setup uses a contact microphone based on a piezo
disc, a modern component that is currently in production, unlike the gramophone
cartridges that are largely obsolete and increasingly difficult to obtain.

Limitations:

° Signal-to-Noise Ratio: The DIY piezoelectric microphone showed slightly higher
noise compared to commercial equipment. However, this can be mitigated
through software post-processing or improved insulation.

° Durability: While the microphone performed well in short-term tests, long-term
use in harsh environments could lead to wear and tear on the piezo discs or
connections.

Implementation

The study shows that a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone is a feasible, low-cost
alternative for recording substrate-borne vibrations in insects. The low cost and ease of
construction make this tool accessible for researchers with limited budgets or those
working in the field.

In order to test the prepared sensor, we have recorded the signals of insects from
different groups. Oscillograms, spectrograms and audio files of the recorded signals of
Messor wasmanni Krausse, 1910 (Fig. 3, Suppl. material 2), Myrmica ravasinii Finzi,
1923 (Fig. 4, Suppl. material 3), Manica rubida (Latreille, 1802) (Fig. 5, Suppl. material 4),
Ponera coarctata (Latreille, 1802) (Fig. 6, Suppl. material 5) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae),
an ant nest beetle (Paussus turcicus |. Frivaldszky von Frivald, 1835) (Fig. 7, Suppl.
material 6) (Coleoptera, Carabidae), a planthopper (Orosanga japonica (Melichar, 1898)
(Fig. 8, Suppl. material 7) (Hemiptera, Ricaniidae) and a jumping plant louse (Bactericera
perrisii Puton, 1876) (Fig. 9, Suppl. material 8) (Hemiptera, Triozidae) are provided to
demonstrate the effectiveness of the created equipment. An archive of the original
unedited recordings presented in this article is provided (Suppl. material 9).

The recordings, processed with Audacity are available in the Supplementary files to this
article. For some recordings, noise reduction was performed by sampling parts of the
recording where there was no signal and suppressing the noise by 24-36 dB. For most
recordings, a high-pass filter was applied at 50-100 Hz after ensuring that there was no
signal to process at these frequencies. In some cases where the recording was too quiet,
it was amplified. It is clear that the oscillograms and spectograms obtained are perfectly
suitable for many types of analysis used in biotremology and also for taxonomic
identification when acoustic libraries have been prepared for the group concerned, with
the exception of the signals produced by the harvester ant Messor wasmanni and the
psyllid Bactericera perrisii. The recordings from the stridulation of the ants Myrmica

8 Gjonov | et al

ravasinii, Manica rubida, Ponera coarctata, the ant nest beetle Paussus turcicus, as well
as and the male call song of the planthopper Orosanga japonica, are the first for these
species. For VM. wasmanni, only the high frequency signals were studied by Grasso et al.
(2000) and no oscillogram was available, so it is not possible to compare the results, but
the published oscillograms for B. perrisii (Tishechkin 2007) are very similar to those of the
recordings with the proposed equipment.

a

Figure 3.

Messor wasmanni Krausse, 1910:

a: Habitus, scale: 1mm; ER
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 9

Figure 4.

Myrmica ravasinii Finzi, 1923:

a: Habitus, scale: 1mm; ERS
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Re-use potential

The proposed equipment has some limitations compared to calibrated sensor
instruments used in biotremological studies. This is due to the frequency response of the

10 Gjonov | et al

piezo discs being dependent on the DYI sensor assembly. Meanwhile, the substrate on
which a vibration-generating insect resides is an essential component of the vibration
transmission channel. The frequency responses of most substrates, such as plant stems,
exhibit significant variability and non-linearity (Michelsen et al. 1982). Consequently, the
inherent non-linearity of the sensor response is likely to introduce minimal additional
distortion to the recorded signal and can, therefore, be considered negligible.
Nevertheless, the sensor can be used to record biotremological data, allowing
comparative analysis of the signal structure and a range of parameters. The principal
advantage of the proposed DYI biotremological sensor is its accessibility: it can be
reproduced in a laboratory or at home by any individual, including those without any
specialised knowledge of electronics.

ae a

Figure 5.

Manica rubida (Latreille, 1802):

a: Habitus, scale: 1 mm; ER
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 11

Ek
EEE

EEEEEEEEEEE

EE

EEE

|
E

Figure 6.

Ponera coarctata (Latreille, 1802):

a: Habitus, scale: 1 mm; ERY
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Conclusions

The research presented will democratise biotremological methods for the needs of
integrative taxonomy and behavioural ecology. The DIY piezoelectric contact microphone
developed in this study is a practical, low-cost tool for recording insect vibrations from
both professional and citizen scientists. It offers comparable performance to commercial

12 Gjonov | et al

sensors at a fraction of their cost, making biotremology research more accessible to a
wider audience. Future refinements could include better noise insulation and more robust
construction for long-term use in various environments.

Figure 7.

Paussus turcicus |. Frivaldszky von Frivald, 1835:

a: Habitus; EE
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ...

ae ae ee

it hie: Sans oo

Figure 8.

Orosanga japonica (Melichar, 1898):

a: Habitus; ERR
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. EP]

13

14 Gjonov | et al

Figure 9.

Bactericera perrisii Puton, 1876:
a: Habitus;
b: Oscillogram and spectrogram. ETS]

Acknowledgements

This work was financially supported by the National Science Fund of the Republic of
Bulgaria, grant No. KP-06-N-51/6 from 11.11.2021. We are grateful to Dmitri Tishechkin

Biotremological research using a DIY piezoelectric contact microphone - ... 15

(Moscow University, Russia) and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable suggestions
for improving the manuscript.

Conflicts of interest

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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Supplementary materials

Suppl. material 1: 3D printed housing of piezoelement and alligator clip EE

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova

Data type: stl 3D model

Brief description: STL model housing for mounting a piezo disc and crocodile clip. The housing is
for use with a 28 mm diameter piezo disc.

Download file (212.78 kb)

Suppl. material 2: Distress signal of Messor wasmanni EX)

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (4.14 MB)

Suppl. material 3: Distress signal of Myrmica ravasinii 5)

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (11.01 MB)

Suppl. material 4: Distress signal of Manica rubida [2

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (3.29 MB)

18 Gjonov | et al

Suppl. material 5: Distress signal of Ponera coarctata [5

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (3.67 MB)

Suppl. material 6: Distress signal of Paussus turcicus EX)

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (4.14 MB)

Suppl. material 7: Male calling song of Orosanga japonica EZ)

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (2.53 MB)

Suppl. material 8: Male calling song of Bactericera perrisii [5

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova
Data type: sound file
Download file (4.28 MB)

Suppl. material 9: Raw recordings EE

Authors: Ilia Gjonov, Albena Lapeva-Gjonova, Monika Pramatarova

Data type: sound recordings

Brief description: An archive of the original unedited recordings presented in this article.
Download file (17.99 MB)