@ BioRisk BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025) DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 Research Article Community perceptions of ecosystem services, drivers of degradation, and proposed conservation actions for Denbigq Wetland in West Gojam, Ethiopia Kebebush Mulat Alem'® 1 Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, RO. Box 30726, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Corresponding author: Kebebush Mulat Alem (kebemu2011@gmail.com) OPEN Qaceess Academic editor: Josef Settele Received: 24 April 2025 Accepted: 17 July 2025 Published: 12 August 2025 Citation: Alem KM (2025) Community perceptions of ecosystem services, drivers of degradation, and proposed conservation actions for Denbig Wetland in West Gojam, Ethiopia. BioRisk 23: 45-61. https://doi. org/10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 Copyright: © Kebebush Mulat Alem. This is an open access article distributed under terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (Attribution 4.0 International - CC BY 4.0). Abstract Denbig Wetland, located in Bure Woreda of West Gojam, Ethiopia, provides essential eco- system services that support local livelihoods and biodiversity. This study assessed the wetland’s ecological functions, the socio-economic factors contributing to its degrada- tion, and community-driven conservation strategies. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations from a randomly selected sample of 202 households. Descriptive statistics and binary lo- gistic regression were used for analysis. The findings show that the wetland offers diverse ecosystem services, including provisioning (freshwater, fodder, fruits), regulating (water purification, temperature control), cultural (recreation, tourism), and supporting (habitat, organic matter accumulation) functions. Logistic regression revealed statistically signif- icant influences (p < 0.01): household size was negatively associated with wetland con- dition, while landholding size and age had positive impacts. Key drivers of degradation include agricultural expansion, overgrazing, reduced upland crop productivity, and limited grazing land. The local community showed strong awareness of, and support for, interven- tions such as awareness campaigns, establishing buffer zones, and grazing control. These findings underscore the need for integrated, community-based and policy-supported wet- land management to maintain ecosystem function while supporting rural livelihoods. Key words: Denbigq, drivers of change, ecosystem services, sustainable use, wetland management Introduction Wetlands are among the most valuable and fragile ecosystems on Earth, providing a wide array of ecological, economic, and cultural benefits (Xu et al. 2019). They regulate hydrological cycles, support biodiversity, sequester carbon, moderate lo- cal climate conditions, and contribute to food and water security (Junk et al. 2013; Lamsal et al. 2015). Wetlands provide four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning services (e.g., freshwater, fodder, fuelwood, wild food); regulating ser- vices (e.g., climate regulation, flood control, water purification); cultural services (e.g., recreation, spiritual significance, education); and supporting services (e.g., nutrient cycling, habitat provision, soil formation) (Wallace 2007; Junk et al. 2013). 45 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Globally, the perception of wetlands has changed significantly over the last few decades. Formerly dismissed as unproductive “wastelands,” they are now recognized for their ecological significance and socio-economic value (Mar- tinez-Juarez et al. 2015; Darwall et al. 2018). In Ethiopia, wetlands have long played a role in supporting rural livelihoods through resource provision, eco- logical regulation, and cultural importance (Wondie 2018). Yet despite this importance, many Ethiopian wetlands are under accelerating pressure from agricultural expansion, settlement growth, water diversion, and infrastructure development (Gebresllassie et al. 2014). Underlying drivers include rapid popu- lation growth, weak and fragmented environmental governance, market failures linked to the undervaluation of ecosystem services, and insecure land tenure (Hoe and Lian 2021). These pressures are exacerbated by limited hydrologi- cal data, poor watershed management, and a general lack of monitoring and enforcement capacity (Giweta 2018). Although there has been growing aware- ness of wetlands’ importance, conservation efforts often remain fragmented and reactive, rather than proactive and integrated. A persistent barrier to effective wetland management in Ethiopia is the fail- ure to bridge scientific assessments with local community knowledge and par- ticipation (Kakuru et al. 2013; Giweta 2018). Most conservation efforts have either ignored or insufficiently incorporated community perspectives, resulting in limited impact. Top-down conservation initiatives that overlook local values and livelihood realities often achieve limited long-term impact. Moreover, in- terventions framed around ecosystem services are seldom evaluated for so- cio-economic outcomes, reducing opportunities for adaptive management. Addressing these gaps requires site-specific, participatory assessments that combine ecological, socio-economic, and governance dimensions. Denbig Wetland, located in the West Gojam Zone (Bure Woreda) of the Amha- ra Region, exemplifies these challenges. The wetland supplies freshwater, graz- ing land, medicinal plants, and cultural and spiritual value for local communities. However, it faces mounting pressures, including agricultural encroachment, nutrient loading from nearby farms, loss of native vegetation, and pollution. Although local awareness exists, conservation measures remain fragmented, inconsistent, and weakly institutionalized. Despite some local awareness of the wetland’s importance, conservation actions have been inconsistent and insuffi- cient. Scientific data on the wetland’s ecological status are scarce, and existing initiatives lack coordination and long-term vision. Moreover, policies and inter- ventions have tended to be top-down, with minimal community involvement or contextual adaptation, further limiting their effectiveness. While various threats to Ethiopian wetlands have been broadly recognized in policy and literature, there remains a critical research gap in site-specific, in- tegrated assessments that combine both ecological data and local knowledge (Aazami and Shanazi 2020). Existing studies often focus on biophysical chang- es or land cover dynamics in isolation, while overlooking the social dimensions and local drivers of wetland transformation. Moreover, many past interventions whether government-led or externally funded have lacked continuity, failed to gain community ownership, or did not address the socio-economic incentives that fuel unsustainable use. In the case of Denbiq Wetland, there is limited empirical research evaluating its ecosystem services, degradation drivers, or local conservation knowledge. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 46 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbiq Wetland, Ethiopia Although some efforts have been made to raise awareness and promote sus- tainable practices, they have not been systematically assessed or widely imple- mented. As a result, degradation persists, and the wetland'’s potential to sup- port both ecological and human systems is increasingly compromised. This study addresses these gaps through an integrated, community-based assessment of Denbiq Wetland. Specifically, it: (i) characterizes household so- cio-economic conditions and dependence on wetland resources; (ii) documents community perceptions of ecosystem services across provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting categories; (iii) identifies perceived drivers of wetland deg- radation; (iv) tests socio-economic predictors of wetland sustenance/degradation using binary logistic regression; and (v) documents locally proposed conservation and management interventions. The research findings will offer concrete recom- mendations that can inform future conservation planning, not only for Denbig Wet- land but also for other similarly threatened wetlands in the Ethiopian highlands. Materials and methods Description of the study area The study was conducted in Denbig Wetland, located in Bure Woreda, within the West Gojam Zone of the Amhara Region, North West Ethiopia. Geographically, the area lies at 10°42'N and 37°4'E, approximately 415 km northwest of Addis Ababa and 150 km southwest of Bahir Dar. The wetland covers an estimated 3,123 hectares, and primarily fed by the Denbig spring, surface runoff, and sea- sonal precipitation from the upper catchment. The region receives an annual rainfall ranging from 1386 to 1757 mm, follow- ing amonomodal rainfall pattern concentrated between May to September (Erki- hun et al. 2015). This rainfall pattern, combined with the varied elevation 713 to 2604 meters above sea level, creates distinct agroecological zones, moist and wet lowland (10%), wet Woina-Dega (82%), and wet Dega (8%) (Adamu et al. 2019). These zones significantly influence wetland hydrology through runoff vol- ume, infiltration rate, and erosional potential. For instance, steep slopes in high- lands contribute to sediment deposition, while intensive land use in the lower ar- eas affects the wetland'’s natural retention capacity and groundwater recharge. Temperature ranges from 14 °C to 24 °C annually, supporting diverse agri- cultural practices. The surrounding land is heavily cultivated, and the proximity of farming activities to the wetland accelerates nutrient loading and vegetation loss, particularly in the northern part, which is degraded due to crop encroach- ment and overgrazing (Fig. 1). In contrast, the eastern sections retain native shrubs and grasses that provide habitat for wetland fauna. Socio-economically, Bure is primarily agrarian, with the majority of the pop- ulation engaged in mixed crop-livestock farming. Major crops include maize, teff, sorghum, and barley, cultivated in a subsistence-oriented farming system. Landholding sizes are generally small, and population density is relatively high, which places intense pressure on natural resources, including wetlands. Com- munity dependence on Denbig Wetland is high, with local livelihoods benefiting from water supply, grazing land, traditional medicine, and seasonal wild har- vests. However, limited awareness and lack of formal management structures have made the wetland vulnerable to unsustainable use and degradation. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 47 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia ar? are = S S [| Ethio regions s 5 ra Amhara woredas % z [| Bure woreda Z Fs F é iol Dinbg wetland & + 45 3 Iroesare ar rare ars Se ar Fare a4 Sre eae are are rare Figure 1. Map of the study area. Research design and data collection The study was carried out in four selected kebeles Wadera, Denbun, Tiya Tiya, and Alfa. These Kebeles were deliberately selected based on three criteria: 1. The extent of wetland area within each Kebeles, 2. Intensity of wetland utiliza- tion for agricultural and pastoral purposes, and 3. The community's perceived reliance on wetland ecosystem services. This stratified selection ensured rep- resentation of gradients in pressure and use intensity. The research employed the ecosystem service classification proposed by Wallace (2007), which di- vides services into provisioning, supporting, regulating, and cultural categories. Data collection includes household survey, focus group discussions, key infor- mant interviews, and field observations. For the households’ survey respon- dents were randomly sampled to ensure proportional representation from each kebele. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data on demographic characteristics, livelihood strategies, perceptions on wetland benefits, and awareness of conservation practices. The questionnaire was adapted from An- derson and Davis (2013) translated into the local language, and refined through a preliminary pretest to ensure clarity and cultural relevance. A combination of data collection methods was employed. Focus group discussions were conducted in each kebele, with six to eight participants chosen based on their reliance on wetland resources. Four FGDs were held in total one per kebele balancing diversity and logistical feasibility, while ensuring representation across gender, age, and livelihood groups. Each discussion followed a structured guide covering wetland services, change trends, and drivers of degradation. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 48 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Twelve key informants were selected purposively, including local elders, de- velopment agents, agricultural office, and community leaders. The number was chosen to ensure coverage of key stakeholder perspectives while maintaining depth of engagement. Qualitative data from FGDs and key informants were analyzed using thematic content analysis. Transcripts were reviewed, coded manually, and grouped into thematic categories reflecting perceptions, drivers of change, and suggested conservation actions. This allowed for systematic interpretation of patterns across interviews. Field observations were conducted in two phases: a preliminary site visit for logistical planning, and a detailed survey during primary data collection to ob- serve environmental conditions, land use patterns, and vegetation cover. These observations helped validate community responses and triangulate data. Sample frame and sampling techniques Four sample Kebeles surrounding Denbig wetland were included in the sam- pling frame. Household respondents were selected using simple random sam- pling proportional to kebele household population. Sample size was determined using Yamane (1976) formula at + 7% precision and 95% confidence level: ON "Tr + N(e2)] Where n is the required total sample size of respondents, N is the total house- hold (22771) in all sample Kebeles, e is the minimum level of precision (0.07), where the confidence level is 95% at P = + 5 (maximum variability). 22771 l- eoCoC--_—_— [1 + 22771(0.0049)| Accordingly, a total of 202 households, 50 (24%) from Alefa kebele, 44 (21.5%) from Tiya Tiya, 60 (32%) from Denbun, and 47 (22.5%) households from Wadera kebele were randomly selected for interview (Table 1). In addition, 12 key informants and four Focus group discussions (each group consisting of 6 individuals) were involved and participated in the study. Members of the Focus group discussions were selected purposively. = 202 Data analysis The data collected from the household survey were analyzed using the Statis- tical Package for Social Scientists version 26.0. The analysis involved both de- scriptive statistics and logistic regression to interpret the findings effectively. Table 1. Total household heads (HHH) and sampled respondents by kebele. Sample HHH Kebeles Total HHH Males Females Total Percentage (%) Alefa 5,563 46 4 24 Tiya Tiya 4,575 38 6 21-5 Wadera 5)326 42 5 225) Denbun 7,307 54 6 32 Total 22,771 181 21 100 BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 49 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Descriptive statistics were used to summarize general trends, while a binary logistic regression model was applied to explore relationships between vari- ables. This approach provided a comprehensive understanding of both broad patterns and deeper variable interactions. The regression model utilized was based on the linear regression framework outlined by Gujarati (2004). Y =a + B1X1 + B2X2 + B3X3 + B4X4 + BHX5 + BOXG + BTX7 + B&X8+ v where: Y = dependent variable (degradation/loss of wetlands), a = constant, X1-X8 are independent variables; that is, X1 = Location, and, X2 = age of the respondents, X3 = gender of the respondents, X4 = family size, X5 = ed- ucational level, X6 = Occupation, X7 = land size, X8 = Tropical livestock unit (TLU) and u = error term (residual).Values 81-88 are the parameters es- timated (i.e., the respective coefficients of the independent variables X1- X8. Focusing on statistical significance and effect size allows us to identify which household factors or socio-economic characteristics played a key role in wetland degradation. Thus, a procedure was performed to test the null hypothesis, B1 = B2 = B3 = B = n, against the alternative hypothesis, which is that the null hypothesis is not true in at least one case. The data obtained from focus group discussion and field observation were written in the form of verbal/narrative information. Results Socio-demographic characteristics and livelihood Understanding the demographic composition of local communities is cru- cial for informed policy-making, strategic planning, and effective natural re- source management, particularly when it comes to the sustainable use and restoration of wetlands. In this study, structured questionnaires were admin- istered to 202 household heads. The findings indicated that the majority of respondents came from male-headed households, comprising 89.6%, where- as female-headed households accounted for 10.4% (Table 2). The average respondent age was 40 years, with participants ranging between 25 and 61 years. Regarding educational background, 17.8% of respondents were illiter- ate and unable to read or write. Additionally, 26.7% had completed primary school, 36.8% had attained secondary education, and 16.8% had pursued college-level studies (Table 2). Agriculture was the primary occupation for most respondents, with 83.7% identifying as farmers. Other professions, such as government employment and self-employment, constituted a small- er percentage of the surveyed population have played a crucial role in pro- viding provisioning, regulating, and cultural benefits to local communities. A significant portion of respondents (94.5%) were engaged in crop farming, while others participated in additional economic activities, including livestock rearing (32.4%), vegetable farming (59.7%), small-scale trade (4.5%), and har- vesting wetland resources such as reeds, thatching grass, and wild fruits (Table 2). While there were minor differences among the wetlands in the four kebeles, Dembun and Tiya Tiya wetlands were found to be heavily impacted by agricul- tural expansion, livestock grazing, drainage, and seasonal recession farming, BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 50 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Table 2. Socio-demographic information of respondents (n = 202). Sociodemographic Participated respondents variable Category Number (%) Gender Male 181 89.6 Female 21 10.4 Age <40 92 45.5 41-50 68 33.7 >51 42 20.8 Education Can't read and write 36 17.8 Primary education 54 26.7 Secondary education 78 38.6 College 34 16.8 Residence Born 180 89.1 Immigrants Ze 10.9 Occupation Farmer 169 83.7 Gov't employed 6 | 3 Merchant and farmer 27 13.4 Source of income Crop production 192 94.5 Vegetables and fruits 108 59.7 Livestock 45 32.4 Trade 9 | 4.5 particularly in the dry season. Tiya Tiya wetland lacked buffer vegetation, whereas the Debun Kebele wetland was relatively covered by the Nile grass species (Berbeza). Meanwhile, Alefa and Wadera wetlands were predominantly occupied by Typha lotifolia and Cyperus papyrus reed species. This consistency underscores their fundamental role in sustaining both human livelihoods and environmental well-being. Livestock holdings, land size, and household characteristics Household characteristics showed wide ranges (Table 3). Family size ranged from 1 to 12 persons (mean 5.19 + 1.90). Livestock holdings (number, proxy for TLU) ranged from 0 to 19 animals (mean 7.2 + 5.1). Cultivated land aver- aged 1.38 + 0.89 ha (range 0.15-4 ha); grazing land averaged 0.59 + 0.38 ha (range 0.10—-5 ha); homestead plots 0-0.5 ha (mean 0.15 + 0.12 ha); wood- lots O-1.75 ha (mean 0.44 + 0.22 ha). Some households reported having no land at all and were dependent on sharecropping or common lands. House- holds with extensive livestock relied heavily on wetland grazing; land-poor households harvested wetland grasses (cheff) for sale and used wetland water for household and small-plot irrigation. Table 3. Household characteristics, livestock population, and land holding in hectares. Variables Minimum | Maximum Mean + S.d Family size 1 12 5.19+1.9 Number of livestock 0 19 7245.1 Cultivated land (ha) 0.15 4 1.38 + 0.89 Grazing land (ha) 0.1 | 5 0.59 + 0.38 Homestead (ha) 0 0.5 0.15+0.12 Woodlot (ha) 0 175 0.44 +0.22 BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 5] Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Ecosystem service in Denbiq Wetland Wetlands provide vital ecosystem services, including water filtration, flood con- trol, carbon storage, and habitat for biodiversity. They improve water quality by trapping pollutants, reducing erosion, and supporting fisheries and agriculture. Wetlands also regulate climate by storing carbon and buffering against ex- treme weather, benefiting both nature and human communities. Respondents exhibited varying levels of awareness about the ecosystem services provided by the wetland (Table 4). Approximately 36.6% were not informed, while 28.2% were moderately informed. Education level and locality significantly influenced awareness (p < 0.01). Respondents with higher education demonstrated great- er recognition of the wetland’s ecological functions. Provisioning services The Denbig Wetland provides a range of provisioning services that are crucial to the livelihoods of surrounding communities. The high level of recognition among respondents reflects their direct dependence on the wetland for their livelihoods. A significant portion of household's reported utilizing the wetland primarily for water-related needs water for livestock (70.9%), domestic use (60.4%), and irrigation (40%) (Table 7). Beyond water access, the wetland also supports agriculture and household economies through fodder and grazing re- sources (65.3%), thatching grass (48.5%), and wood for fuel and construction purposes (30.5%). A smaller proportion of respondents (10.2%) indicated the use of the wetland for medicinal plant collection, highlighting its supplementa- ry role in traditional health practices. These provisioning services are particularly essential in areas like Alefa and Wadera, where crop production forms the backbone of local livelihoods. This strong agricultural dependence further illustrates the community's reliance on the wetland not only as a natural resource base but also as a critical contributor to household income and food security. Regulating services Denbiq Wetland offers several important regulating services, including temperature regulation through carbon sequestration (50.5%), water puri- fication (61.6%), erosion control (70.5%), and sediment retention (47.4%) (Table 7). The wetland’s ability to store water during the wet season and provide it during the dry season exemplifies how wetlands support local Table 4. Respondents’ level of awareness of ecosystem services from Denbig Wetland. Chi-square (x2) Response Frequency % Educational level Respondent locality Fully Informed 23 11.4 26:6* 24.4* Informed 48 23.8 Moderately Informed 57 28.2 Not informed 74 36.6 *\2 significant at p < 0.01. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 52 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia climate resilience and water management. More than 50% of respondents recognized that nearly all wetland types play a crucial role in flood regu- lation, water purification, and sediment retention (Table 7). The table also reveals a higher recognition of erosion control (70.5%) and a lower percep- tion of sediment retention (47.4%). Additionally, experts and field observa- tions noted that wetlands impacted by urbanization tend to provide stronger pollution control services. Cultural services The primary benefit provided by Denbig Wetland is its cultural service. The interviewed households recognized the cultural value of the wetland, seeing it as an ideal location for recreation (60.4%), spiritual activities (35.6%), and educational and research purposes (4%) (Table 7). However, the length of time respondents had lived in the area significantly impacted their percep- tion of the cultural ecosystem services (P < 0.05; Table 5) and their connec- tion to the land. Supporting services A large proportion of respondents acknowledge the role of Denbig Wetland in Supporting various bird species and other wildlife, indicating that the eco- logical importance of the wetland goes beyond its direct benefits to humans and includes vital support for local biodiversity. The wetland provides sev- eral supporting services, such as serving as breeding grounds (45.4%) and habitats (50.2%) for wetland plants and animals, facilitating soil formation through the accumulation of organic matter (45.2%), and contributing to nu- trient cycling (57.2%) (Table 7). According to the survey, Denbiq Wetland supports about 65 bird species, including the common crane, great white pelican, yellow-billed duck, Egyptian goose, African jacana, wattled crane, and crowned crane. The supporting services provided by the wetland have an indirect impact on the local population, and understanding them requires some ecological knowledge. The age of respondents was a significant fac- tor influencing their perception of supporting ecosystem services (P < 0.05; Table 6). This trend may be attributed to the fact that those with higher lev- els of education (secondary and college) were generally between the ages of 30 and 51, making them more capable of recognizing and understanding the supporting services provided by the wetland. Table 5. Respondents’ perception of cultural ecosystem services as influenced by dura- tion of residence in Denbig wetland. Age Cultural Service ey : inital = Recreational | Aesthetic | Educational | Total | Chi-square (x2 <40 8 29 5 11 53 25.504* 41-50 10 9 8 13 40 >51 25 32 23 29 109 Total 43 70 55 53 202 *\2 significant at p < 0.05. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 53 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Table 6. Perception of supporting ecosystem services as influenced by respondents’ age. Age categories supporting ecosystem service (Years) Primary production | Nutrient Cycling | Soil formation | Total | Chi-square (x2 <40 18 6 33 57 21.564* 41-50 27 12 27 65 >51 38 8 33 80 Total 83 26 93 202 *\2 significant at p < 0.05. Table 7. Main ecosystem services of Denbig wetland based on household perception. Ecosystem service provided 1. Provisioning N % Ranks Water for domestic use 123 60.4 3 Water for irrigation 8 40 6 Water for livestock drinking 126 70.9 1 Fodder and grazing service 35 65.3 2 Woods for fuel @ 30.5 7 Medicinal plants 11 10.2 4 Hatching grass 9 48.5 5 2. Regulating service Temperature regulation 42 90.5 3 Water purification 44 63.6 2 Sediment retention 34 47.4 4 Erosion control 82 70.5 1 3. Cultural services Recreational services eas 60.4 Spiritual services 72 83516 Educational and research services 8 4 4. Supporting services Habitat 61 SU:2 Zz Nursery 15 45.4 4 Accumulation of organic matter 51 45.2 3 Nutrient cycling 75 S7.2 1 Perception of driving forces of the degradation of denbiq wetlands Several contributing factors have been identified as causes for the deteriora- tion of the wetland, including farmland scarcity (22.3%), inadequate grazing land (86%), lack of awareness (77%), unclear boundaries (70.3%), youth unem- ployment (58.1%), absence of alternative livelihoods (51.9%), low productivity of nearby land (30.2%), deforestation (11.2%), sedimentation (47%), and the expansion of settlements (13.7%) (Fig. 2). Variables such as household size, landholding size, livestock population, and age significantly influence the Denbig wetland ecosystem, with a 99% con- fidence level (Table 8). Among these variables, household size was negative- ly associated on wetland sustainability (8 = -0.873, p = 0.006). This implies that larger families are more likely to exert pressure on wetlands, possibly due to higher resource demands (e.g., farming land, water, and grazing), thereby contributing to wetland degradation. As family sizes increase, the likelihood of converting wetland areas for agricultural or domestic use also increases. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 54 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbiq Wetland, Ethiopia Precent(%) respondent 100 90 80 70 60 50 47 40 30 - 2 20 ue 2 13.7 * - 0 > S S < A < °O Se Xe) ‘y As Na s & & se ro S$ mo os om XS é Oe sO oo? S ? Ss & s oo & J g aS € oS m £ se 4% ve & & s ° iY, & & x ° s &? s Ky ro) S S < + Ss ° < & ~ 50 Nia <" & > wt & eo ° 2? 40 rs ba 2 + Oo dS No No ¢ ¢ 3 S Figure 2. Major driving forces for the degradation of Denbiq wetland based on the pro- portion (%) of respondents. Table 8. Binomial logistic regression for determining factors affecting wetland sustenance. ' Beta coefficient "Statistics 95% C.1 for EXP(B) Variables B SE df Sg EXP(B) | Lower | Upper Location -0.209 0.873 | 1 0.658 0.82 0.183 | 3.519 Sex 1.578 0.981 1 0.217 | 3.91 0.735 | 24.35 Age | 1.932 0.808 1 0.009 9.254 1.845 14.95 Family size | -0.873 0.364 | 1 0.006 0.597 0.358 | 0.893 Educational level 1.298 1.349 | 1 0.023 3.852 0.326 | 42.463 occupation -2.147 102" |)“ 0.324 | 0.219 0.009 4.102 Landholding(ha) 3.025 0.903 | 1 0.009 8.813 1.876 | 40.703 Number of livestock 0.312 0.092 1 0.008 1.522 Loz 1.928 constant 0.237 ZO TH) Oe 0.987 1.892 a. Dependent variable: Wetland sustenance/degradation) Conversely, the age of the household head showed a positive and significant effect (8 = 1.93, p = 0.009). Older individuals are more likely to support wetland conservation, possibly due to greater ecological knowledge, cultural connec- tion, or experience with the long-term benefits of wetlands. Landholding size was also positively associated with wetland sustainability (8 = 3.02, p = 0.009). Households with more land are less likely to encroach upon wetlands for farm- ing or grazing, as they have alternative areas for these activities (Table 8). This suggests that larger household sizes are associated with a higher likelihood of utilizing wetland resources and contributing to its degradation. The number of livestock owned positively influenced wetland use (8 = 0.31, p = 0.008), suggesting that livestock-dependent households are more likely to depend on wetland resources such as water and forage. Although this relationship is pos- itive, it also implies potential overuse, as increased livestock grazing can lead to wetland degradation if not managed properly. These findings suggest that demographic and socioeconomic variables play a critical role in influencing community interactions with wetlands. Conservation strategies should there- fore target large households, younger and less experienced land users, and households with significant livestock holdings through education, livelihood diversification, and wetland-friendly land-use planning. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 55 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Actions recommended by the local community A significant portion of respondents were well-informed (11.4%), informed (23.8%), or moderately informed (28.2%) about the challenges facing Den- biq Wetland and potential solutions (Table 4). Key conservation measures proposed by respondents include raising awareness (64%), reducing grazing around the wetland (41%), developing buffer zones (38.39%), preventing defor- estation (12.42%), installing shoreline fencing (49.23%), and regulating the use of wetland water for irrigation (3%) (Table 9). Many respondents emphasized the importance of educating both the local community and the wider public on the numerous benefits wetlands provide, such as water purification, flood control, supporting biodiversity, and carbon sequestration. Table 9. Wetland conservation measures suggested by respondents. Wetland conservation measure Frequency Percent Awareness creation 715 64 Reducing grazing around the Wetland 53 41 Develop buffer zones 44 38.39 Avoid deforestation 24 12.42 Shoreline fencing 64 49.23 Controlling the use of wetland water for irrigation 12 S Discussion The study assessed community perception of ecosystem services, degrada- tion drivers, and conservation action concerning Denbig wetland, in West Go- jam, Ethiopia. The results confirm the wetland’s importance in supporting local livelihoods, mainly through provisioning services such as water for irrigation, grazing, and raw materials. This service aligns with the studies conducted in other parts of Ethiopia, such as the Fogera and Zegie wetlands where provision- ing service benefits dominate local use and perception (Gibru and Biru 2022; Boru et al. 2024). Wetlands are crucial ecosystems that provide a broad range of essential services, benefiting not only local communities but also the broad- er environment (Thapa et al. 2020). The significant contributions of these eco- systems to human livelihoods are well-documented in various studies (Yilma 2019; Zekarias et al. 2021; Camacho-Valdez et al. 2022). Most respondents indicated that their primary livelihood depends on wetland'’s resources, particularly for crop production and livestock rearing (Turyahabwe et al. 2013; Porte and Gupta 2017). This reliance makes the community highly vulnerable to any changes in the wetland’s ecological functions. However, while provisioning services were most frequently mentioned, regulating and support- ing services received limited recognition. This reflects a common trend in rural communities where direct and tangible benefits are more easily recognized than indirect or long-term ecological functions (Taiwo 2013; Tari et al. 2022). In addi- tion to provisioning services, Denbig Wetland provides valuable cultural ecosys- tem services. Traditionally, the wetland hosted local rituals, served as a recre- ational space, and symbolized communal identity. However, respondents noted a decline in cultural values, which they attributed to youth migration, the influ- ence of formal education, and religious shifts. Similar patterns of cultural service BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 56 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbiq Wetland, Ethiopia degradation due to modernization and land use changes have been observed in other wetland systems (Daw et al. 2011; Turyahabwe et al. 2013). Reviving these services may require integrating traditional knowledge into current conservation practices and increasing youth engagement in heritage preservation. Institutional and policy-related gaps emerged as a critical factor in the Denbiq Wetland. While some government and community-led conservation action existed, their impact has been limited, by weak enforcement, unclear mandate among re- sponsible bodies, and lack of coordination. Key drivers identified through surveys and focus group discussions include agricultural expansion, overgrazing, sedimen- tation, and the unsustainable use of wetland resources (Jing et al. 2008; Noriko et al. 2012). Focus group participants and key informants noted the wetland’s de- clining size and water levels, which they attribute to agricultural activities and un- sustainable practices. Respondents expressed concerns over the absence of clear wetland ownership and accountability, leading to open access exploitation. Nation- al policies such as Ethiopia's Wetland Strategy under the Ministry of Water and Energy provide frameworks, but implementation at the local level remains insuffi- cient. The need for stronger institutional mechanisms, including community-based governance and inter-sectoral coordination, is evident and has been emphasized in other wetland governance literature (Wood and Baker 2023; De Oliveira et al. 2024). Drivers of degradation identified by communities include agricultural en- croachment, overgrazing, siltation, and vegetation clearance. These findings are consistent with studies that link wetland degradation in Ethiopia to inten- sified land use and weak land tenure systems (Marambanyika et al. 2021). Cli- mate variability also plays a role, particularly with changing rainfall patterns affecting water availability. Addressing these drivers requires a blend of techni- cal interventions such as restoration and buffer zone establishment and institu- tional measures like land use planning and environmental education. Despite efforts by some local actors to initiate conservation, the study re- vealed limited awareness of ecosystem service trade-offs and degradation consequences. This gap underscores the importance of participatory ap- proaches in wetland management, where local knowledge is integrated with scientific expertise. Strengthening awareness through community training, participatory mapping, and school-based environmental programs could fos- ter long-term stewardship. Finally, while the study provided valuable insights into community perceptions and priorities, it is important to acknowledge its limitations. The data were collected during a single season and may not reflect temporal variations in ecosystem service use or degradation intensity. In addi- tion, perspectives from stakeholders outside the immediate community such as regional planners or NGOs were not fully explored. Future research could expand on these areas, incorporate longitudinal data, and examine ecological assessments in tandem with socio-economic insights. Conclusion Denbigq Wetland plays a vital role in providing essential ecosystem services that support the well-being and livelihoods of local communities, including provision- ing, regulating, cultural, and supporting functions. However, the wetland is facing significant degradation due to unsustainable practices such as overgrazing, ag- ricultural expansion, sedimentation, and overuse of resources. Despite its value, BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 57 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia the wetland is rapidly deteriorating endangering biodiversity and human welfare. Encouragingly, a large majority of households expressed willingness to support conservation and restoration efforts. Suggested interventions include enhanc- ing upland cropland productivity, creating alternative livelihoods, raising aware- ness, installing shoreline fencing, and conserving the wetland. A comprehensive approach that combines restoration, sustainable management, and communi- ty-based strategies is essential for preserving the Denbig wetland and ensuring its long-term health and ecosystem services. The key finding of this study is the need for stronger institutional coordination and enforcement mechanisms. Current governance frameworks do not adequately address wetland related challenges, leaving these ecosystems vulnerable to exploitation. Study Limitation: The data collection was conducted in a single season, which may not capture temporal variations in wetland usage. Future effort must incorporate community engage- ment, clear regulatory frameworks, and consistent monitoring. Future research should consider longitudinal approach and evaluate the impact of climate variabil- ity. In conclusion, preserving Denbigq Wetland requires an integrated strategy that balances ecological integrity with local socio-economic realities. With appropriate policy support, community participation, and sustainable practices, the wetland can continue to provide essential ecosystem services for generations to come. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the Bure Woreda Agriculture and Rural Develop- ment Office and its experts for their help in field studies and for giving relevant information in written documents, and reports, which helped this research. Additional information Conflict of interest The author has declared that no competing interests exist. Ethical statement No ethical statement was reported. Use of Al No use of Al was reported. Funding No funding was reported. Author contributions All the activities are done by Kebebush Mulat. Author ORCIDs Kebebush Mulat Alem © https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6537-4669 Data availability Data supporting this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 58 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia References Aazami M, Shanazi K (2020) Tourism wetlands and rural sustainable livelihood: The case from Iran. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 30: 100284. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jort.2020.100284 Adamu HA, Ahemed YA, Dewes J, Bolshinsky |, Tozser S, Moses S, Gaines K, Chakrov P (2019) Report on preparations and activities leading to the shipment of irradiated HEU fuel of the Nigeria Research Reactor-1 from Nigeria to China. Proceedings of the European Research Reactor Conference (RRFM 2019), March 2019, Jordan. Anderson JT, Davis CA (2013) Wetland Techniques, Vol. 3: Applications and Manage- ment. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6907-6 Boru KA, Ingale LT, Lemt KM (2024) Wetland ecosystem: Plant species diversity, ser- vices, degradation drivers, and community perception in Sinana district, Oromia re- gion, southeast Ethiopia. Nature Environment & Pollution Technology 23(1): 55-68. https://doi.org/10.46488/nept.2024.v23i01.004 Camacho-Valdez V, Rodiles-Hernandez R, Navarrete-Gutiérrez DA, Valencia-Barrera E (2022) Tropical wetlands and land use changes: The case of oil palm in neotropical riverine floodplains. PLoS ONE 17(5): e€0266677. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266677 Darwall W, Bremerich V, Wever A, Dell Al, Freyhof J, Gessner MO, Grossart H, Harrison |, Irvine K, Jahnig SC, Jeschke JM, Lee JJ, Lu C, Lewandowska AM, Monaghan MT, Nejstgaard JC, Patricio H, Schmidt-Kloiber A, Stuart SN, Thieme M, Tockner K, Turak E, Weyl O (2018) The Alliance for Freshwater Life: A global call to unite efforts for freshwater biodiversity science and conservation. Aquatic Conservation 28(4): 1015-1022. https://doi.org/10.1002/aqce.2958 Daw T, Brown K, Rosendo S, Pomeroy R (2011) Applying the ecosystem services con- cept to poverty alleviation: The need to disaggregate human well-being. Environmen- tal Conservation 38(4): 370-379. https://doi.org/10.1017/S037689291 1000506 De Oliveira M, Morrison T, O’Brien KR, Lovelock CE (2024) Governance of coastal wet- lands: Beyond the community conservation paradigm. Ocean and Coastal Manage- ment 255: 107253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2024.107253 Erkihun T, Getaneh G, Assaye M (2015) Prevalence of bovine trypanosomosis in Bure and Womberma Districts of West Gojjam Zone, North West Ethiopia. Acta Parasi- tologica Globalis 6(3): 164-173. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.apg.2015.6.3.95146 Gebresllassie H, Gashaw T, Mehari A (2014) Wetland degradation in Ethiopia: Causes, consequences and remedies. Journal of Environment and Earth Science 4(11): 40- 48. https://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEES/article/view/13989 Gibru A, Biru Y (2022) Assessment of bird species composition, relative abundance, and distributions in East Gojjam wetland habitats, Ethiopia. International Journal of Zoology 2022: 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2802998 Giweta M (2018) Reversing the degradation of Ethiopian wetlands: Is it unachievable phrase or a call to effective action? International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources 14(5): 555898. https://doi.org/10.19080/IJESNR.2018.14.555898 Gujarati DN (2004) Basic Econometrics. 4" edn. McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, 169-217. Hoe LI, Lian CJ (2021) Legal framework on the conservation issue of Pulau Kukup Na- tional Park in Johor, Malaysia. Journal of Sustainability Science and Management 16(5): 115-123. https://doi.org/10.46754/JSSM.2021.07.009 Jing Q, Bouman B, van Keulen H, Hengsdijk H, Cao W, Dai T (2008) Disentangling the effect of environmental factors on yield and nitrogen uptake of irrigated rice in Asia. Agricultural Systems 98(3): 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2008.06.005 BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 59 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbig Wetland, Ethiopia Junk WJ, An S, Finlayson CM, Gopal B, Kvet J, Mitchell SA, Mitsch WJ, Robarts RD (2013) Current state of knowledge regarding the world’s wetlands and their future under global climate change: A synthesis. Aquatic Sciences 75: 151-167. https://doi. org/10.1007/s00027-012-0278-z Kakuru W, Turyahabwe N, Mugisha J (2013) Total economic value of wetlands products and services in Uganda. The Scientific World Journal 2013(1): 192656. https://doi. org/10.1155/2013/192656 Lamsal P, Pant KP Kumar L, Atreya K (2015) Sustainable livelihoods through conserva- tion of wetland resources: A case of economic benefits from Ghodaghodi Lake, west- ern Nepal. Ecology and Society 20(1): 10. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-07172-200110 Marambanyika T, Mupfiga UN, Musasa T, Ngwenya K (2021) Local perceptions on the impact of drought on wetland ecosystem services and associated household live- lihood benefits: The case of the Driefontein Ramsar Site in Zimbabwe. Land 10(6): 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060587 Martinez-Juarez P, Chiabai A, Taylor T, G6mez SQ (2015) The impact of ecosystems on human health and well-being: A critical review. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 10: 63-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2015.06.008 Noriko N, Elfidasari D, Perdana AT, Wulandari N, Wijayanti W (2012) Analisis peng- gunaan dan syarat mutu minyak goreng pada penjaja makanan di Food Court UAI. Jurnal Al-Azhar Indonesia Seri Sains dan Teknologi 1(3): 147 https://doi. org/10.36722/sst.v1i3.52 Porte DS, Gupta S (2017) Nesting behaviour of Indian pond heron, Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832) at Ratanpur, District Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India. Indian Journal of Applied & Pure Biology 32(1): 31-42. Taiwo OJ (2013) Farmers’ choice of wetland agriculture: Checking wetland loss and deg- radation in Lagos State, Nigeria. GeoJournal 78: 103-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/ $10708-011-9434-6 Tari VS, Gupta R, Siddiqui N (2022) Handbook of research on monitoring and evalu- ating the ecological health of wetlands. IG] Global, Hershey, 92-105. https://doi. org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9498-8.ch006 Thapa S, Wang L, Koirala A, Shrestha S, Bhattarai S, Aye WN (2020) Valuation of ecosystem services from an important wetland of Nepal: A study from Begnas Watershed System. Wetlands 40(5): 1071-1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157- 020-01303-7 Turyahabwe N, Kakuru W, Tweheyo M, Tumusiime DM (2013) Contribution of wetland resources to household food security in Uganda. Agriculture & Food Security 2(1): 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/2048-7010-2-5 Wallace KJ (2007) Classification of ecosystem services: Problems and solutions. Biolog- ical Conservation 139(3-4): 235-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.07.015 Wondie A (2018) Ecological conditions and ecosystem services of wetlands in the Lake Tana Area, Ethiopia. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology 18(2): 231-244. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.ecohyd.2018.02.002 Wood RL, Baker MA (2023) Assessing nutrient assimilation by wetland impoundments across environmental gradients. Wetlands 43(6): 66. https://doi.org/10.1007/ $13157-023-01711-5 Xu T, Weng B, Yan D, Wang K, Li X, Bi W, Li M, Cheng X, Liu Y (2019) Wetlands of inter- national importance: Status, threats, and future protection. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16(10): 1818. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph16101818 BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 60 Kebebush Mulat Alem: Community views, threats, and conservation plans for Denbiq Wetland, Ethiopia Yamane S (1976) Morphological and taxonomic studies on the vespine larvae, with ref- erence to the phylogeny of the subfamily Vespinae (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Insecta Matsumurana New Series 8: 1-45. Yilma G (2019) Socio-economic contribution of Rift Valley aquatic and wetlands to the local community and the national economy: The case of Lake Hawassa and asso- ciated wetlands, in the southern part of Ethiopia. International Journal of Environ- mental Sciences & Natural Resources 22(5): 155-163. https://doi.org/10.19080/ IJESNR.2019.22.556096 Zekarias T, Govindu V, Kebede Y, Gelaw A (2021) Geospatial analysis of wetland dynam- ics on Lake Abaya-Chamo, the Main Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Heliyon 7(9): e07943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07943 BioRisk 23: 45-61 (2025), DOI: 10.3897/biorisk.23.156866 61